Data may be grouped into four main types based on methods for collection: observational, experimental, simulation, and derived. The type of research data you collect may affect the way you manage that data. For example, data that is hard or impossible to replace (e.g. the recording of an event at a specific time and place) requires extra backup procedures to reduce the risk of data loss. Or, if you will need to combine data points from different sources, you will need to follow best practices to prevent data corruption. Show
 Observational DataObservational data are captured through observation of a behavior or activity. It is collected using methods such as human observation, open-ended surveys, or the use of an instrument or sensor to monitor and record information -- such as the use of sensors to observe noise levels at the Mpls/St Paul airport. Because observational data are captured in real time, it would be very difficult or impossible to re-create if lost.
Experimental DataExperimental data are collected through active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create difference when a variable is altered. Experimental data typically allows the researcher to determine a causal relationship and is typically projectable to a larger population. This type of data are often reproducible, but it often can be expensive to do so.
Simulation DataSimulation data are generated by imitating the operation of a real-world process or system over time using computer test models. For example, to predict weather conditions, economic models, chemical reactions, or seismic activity. This method is used to try to determine what would, or could, happen under certain conditions. The test model used is often as, or even more, important than the data generated from the simulation.
Derived / Compiled DataDerived data involves using existing data points, often from different data sources, to create new data through some sort of transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or aggregation. For example, combining area and population data from the Twin Cities metro area to create population density data. While this type of data can usually be replaced if lost, it may be very time-consuming (and possibly expensive) to do so. Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you record the behaviors of your research subjects in real world settings. You avoid interfering with or influencing any variables in a naturalistic observation. You can think of naturalistic observation as “people watching” with a purpose. Note: Naturalistic observation is one of the research methods that can be used for an observational study design. Another common type of observation is the controlled observation. In this case, the researcher observes the participant in a controlled environment (e.g., a lab). The observer controls most variables and makes sure participants are observed structurally (e.g., by coding certain behaviors).What is naturalistic observation?In naturalistic observations, you study your research subjects in their own environments to explore their behaviors without any outside influence or control. It’s a research method used in field studies. Traditionally, naturalistic observation studies have been used by animal researchers, psychologists, ethnographers, and anthropologists. Naturalistic observations are helpful as a hypothesis-generating approach, because you gather rich information that can inspire further research. Example: Naturalistic observation in zoologyIn the 1930s, zoologist Konrad Lorenz famously coined the term “imprinting,” which describes a critical period of learning for animals. He came up with the idea by observing ducklings and goslings as they hatched and then taking detailed notes on their behaviors.Based on his naturalistic observations, he believed that these birds imprinted on the first potential parent in their surroundings, and they quickly learned to follow them and their actions. He later devised experiments to test the hypothesis and found clear support for his theory. Naturalistic observation is especially valuable for studying behaviors and actions that may not be replicable in controlled lab settings.
Types of naturalistic observation methodsNaturalistic observations can be:
There are four main ways of using naturalistic observations.
Importantly, all of these take place in naturalistic settings rather than experimental laboratory settings. While you may actively participate in some types of observations, you refrain from influencing others or interfering with the activities you are observing too much.
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See editing example How to collect dataYou can use a variety of data collection methods for naturalistic observations. Audiovisual recordingsNowadays, it’s common to collect observations through audio and video recordings so you can revisit them at a later stage or share them with other trained observers. It’s best to place these recording devices discreetly so your participants aren’t distracted by them. However, make sure you receive informed consent in a written format from each participant prior to recording them. Example: Audiovisual recordingsYou place video cameras in a school playground to study the frequency and type of interactions children have with their peers over time. You make sure these cameras are placed out of sight so that your research subjects don’t pay attention to them.Note-takingYou can take notes while conducting naturalistic observations. Note down anything that seems relevant or important to you based on your research topic and interests in an unstructured way. Example: Note-takingYou observe social interactions and alcohol use in a college bar and take notes. You record your perceptions of research subjects’ beer consumption levels, their speech volume and frequency, their general demeanors, and anything else that sticks out.Tally countsIf you’re studying specific behaviors or events, it’s often helpful to make frequency counts of the number of times these occur during a certain time period. You can use a tally count to easily note down each instance that you observe in the moment. Example: Tally countsYou focus on observing four college students in particular at a college bar. You study their alcohol use behaviors and record the number of drinks they consume during one visit.Data samplingThere’s a lot of information you can collect when you conduct research in natural, uncontrolled environments. To simplify your data collection, you’ll often use data sampling. Data sampling allows you to narrow down the focus of your data recording to specific times or events. Time samplingYou record observations only at specific times. These time intervals can be randomly selected (e.g., at 8:03, 10:34, 12:51) or systematic (e.g., every 2 hours). You record whether your behaviors of interest occur during these time periods. Example: Time samplingYou observe the social behaviors of children in a classroom. You systematically observe and record all social behaviors for 5 minutes every 2 hours over a few days.Event samplingYou record observations only when specific events occur. You may use a tally count to note the frequency of the event or take notes each time you see the event occurring. Example: Event samplingYou focus on cooperative behaviors between eight-year-olds in a classroom. During group activities, you observe and take notes every time you come across helping social behaviors between children.Advantages of naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation is a valuable tool because of its flexibility, external validity, and suitability for research topics that can’t be studied in a lab. Because naturalistic observation is a non-experimental method, you’re not bound to strict procedures. You can avoid using rigid protocols and also change your methods midway if you need to. Naturalistic observations are particularly high in ecological validity, because you use real life environments instead of lab settings. People don’t always act in the same ways in and outside the lab. Your participants behave in more authentic ways when they are unaware they’re being observed. Naturalistic observations help you study topics that you can’t in the lab for ethical reasons. You can also use technology to record conversations, behaviors, or other noise, provided you have consent or it’s otherwise ethically permissible. Disadvantages of naturalistic observationThe downsides of naturalistic observation include its lack of scientific control, ethical considerations, and potential for bias from observers and subjects. Since you perform research in natural environments, you can’t control the setting or any variables. Without this control, you won’t be able to draw conclusions about causal relationships. You also may not be able to replicate your findings in other contexts, with other people, or at other times. Most people don’t want to be observed as they’re going about their day without their explicit consent or awareness. It’s important to always respect privacy and try to be unobtrusive. It’s also best to use naturalistic observations only in public situations where people expect they won’t be alone. Note: Don’t record people without receiving written informed consent prior to the observations.Because you indirectly collect data, there’s always a risk of observer bias in naturalistic observations. Your perceptions and interpretations of behavior may be influenced by your own experiences and inaccurately represent the truth. This type of bias is particularly likely to occur in participant observation methods. When you observe subjects in their natural environment, they may sometimes be aware they’re being observed. As a result, they may change their behaviors to act in more socially desirable ways to confirm your expectations. Frequently asked questions about naturalistic observationWhat is social desirability bias?
Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys, but is most common in semi-structured interviews, unstructured interviews, and focus groups. Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes. This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.
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What type of research is conducted by watching people perform relevant activities and then recording details about what was observed?
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