Movement competence: Association with physical self-efficacy and physical activity, Cameron Peers, Johann Issartel, Stephen Behan, et.al., Human Movement Science, Volume 70, (April 2020). Movement competence (fundamental movement skills and perceived movement skill competence) acts as a source of information for children's physical self-efficacy, moreover physical self-efficacy mediates the movement competence – PA relationship. Findings highlight the need for interventions to target and improve movement competence as a whole for children.
Should toddlers and preschoolers participate in organized sport? A scoping review of developmental outcomes associated with young children’s sport participation, Meghan Harlow, Lauren Wolman and Jessica Fraser-Thomas, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 13(1), pp.40-64, (2020). Organized sport is offered at increasingly younger ages, with many programs geared towards preschoolers, toddlers, and infants. While sport is promoted as an amendable context for healthy development of school-age children, little is empirically known about potential benefits or risks associated with organized sport participation in early childhood. A scoping review of nine electronic databases identified English-language, peer-reviewed, original research articles which addressed psychological, emotional, social, cognitive, or intellectual developmental outcomes of organized sport involvement of children aged 2–5 years; included studies were appraised for quality. Findings offer preliminary evidence that early sport participation is related to primarily positive outcomes (e.g. enhanced social skills, pro-social behaviours, self-regulation), while negative and inconclusive outcomes were also identified. Results suggest limited existing research has primarily relied on parent or teacher proxy-report or assessment, and reinforces that little is known about toddler and preschooler organized sport participation as a distinct form of physical activity, despite pervasive availability of programming, and positive parental perceptions of early enrolment.
Development of a physical literacy model for older adults – a consensus process by the collaborative working group on physical literacy for older Canadians, Gareth Jones, Liza Stathokostas, Bradley Young, et.al., BMC Geriatrics, Volume 18(13), (January 2018). Older adults are a unique group who have yet to be exposed to PL as a means to promote long-term PA participation. This new PL model uses an ecological approach to integrate PL into the lifestyles of most older adults. Understanding the interactions between components and elements that facilitate PL will ultimately provide a new and effective tool to target PA promotion and adherence for all older Canadians.
Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, Peter Witt, Tek Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities.
Setting them up for lifetime activity: Play competence perceptions and physical activity in young children. Lisa Barnett, Nicola Ridgers, Kylie Hesketh, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20 (9), pp.856-860, (2017). The study purpose was to assess if perceived active play competence is associated with young children’s physical activity. Positive findings in the older sample show school-aged children need exposure to play based activities in order to develop the positive self-perception needed to engage in MVPA every day.
Sport-specific factors predicting player retention in junior cricket, Talpey S, Croucher T, Mustafa A , et.al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 17(3), pp.264-270, (2017). This investigation sought to determine the performance and participation factors that influenced continued participation in junior cricket. Players (under the age of 16 years) at a community-level junior cricket association in Australia were surveyed over a seven-year period. Performance factors that significantly predicted continued participation in junior cricket were the number of innings batted and the number of overs bowled. Other performance factors, such as the number of runs scored or wickets taken also influenced ongoing participation. These results demonstrate that sufficient opportunity for children to participate in the game and expression of skills competence are key factors for retention in cricket.
Association between sports participation, motor competence and weight status: A longitudinal study, Henrique R, Re A, Stodden D, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 19(10), pp.825-829, (October 2016). The aim of this study was to investigate if baseline motor competence, weight status, and sports participation in early childhood predicted sports participation two years later. Results indicated that preschoolers who initially participated in sports had acquired more advanced locomotor skills and were more likely to participate in sports two years later. The authors conclude that development of motor competency is cumulative during early childhood and the effects on sport participation and physical activity may be persistent across childhood. Locomotor skills were the first subset of motor competence associated with sport participation, as it involves independent upright locomotion. The next step in the developmental hierarchy is refinement of object control skills, which are generally associated with the maintenance of posture. Because more complex perceptual-motor adjustments are needed for controlled and precise object manipulation and projection, it is clear that prolonged exposure to motor experiences involving object control skills may be needed to achieve mastery in this area.
Why Are Girls Less Physically Active than Boys? Findings from the LOOK Longitudinal Study, Telford RM, Telford RD, Olive LS, et.al., PLoS ONE, Volume 11(3), (2016). Highlights the impact of differences between boys and girls in relation to attributes that are linked to greater lifetime physical activity (such as cardio-respiratory fitness, eye-hand co-ordination, and perceived competence in physical education/movement) and the need to take these factors into account when designing intervention strategies.
Cross-cultural comparison of motor competence in children from Australia and Belgium, Bardid F, Rudd J, Lenoir M, et.al., Frontiers in Psychology, (July 2015). Due to the many different motor skill instruments in use, children's motor competence across countries is rarely compared. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the motor competence of children from Australia and Belgium. Statistical analysis showed that 21% of Belgian children and 39% Australian children scored ‘below average’. The very low levels reported by Australian children may be the result of cultural differences influencing physical activity, such as the physical education framework in schools and the use of active transport (walking or cycling) to/from school. When compared to normed scores, both samples scored significantly worse than children 40 years ago. The decline in children's motor competence is a global issue, largely influenced by increasing sedentary behaviour and a decline in physical activity.
Operationalizing physical literacy through sport education, Hastie P and Wallhead T, Journal of Sport and Health Science, Volume 4(2), pp.132-138, (June 2015). Physical literacy, as embodied within physical education, has been associated with the disposition of students of all abilities to engage in lifelong physical activity. This paper discusses how the pedagogical features of Sport Education, may be used to operationalise both physical literacy and physical education. The authors conclude that substantial evidence exists to validate the link between physical literacy and physical education. Some researchers also suggest that students who are developing their physical literacy within a school physical education program must also be provided with an external outlet to activate their skills in the form of community sport participation.
Associations between young children's perceived and actual ball skill competence and physical activity, Barnetta L, Ridgersb N and Salmon J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 18(2), pp.167-171, (March 2015). A total of 102 children (56% boys, 44% girls) aged 4–8 years completed assessments. The results showed that girls had lower perceived and actual object control competence and were less active than boys. Actual object control competence was positively associated with perceived object control competence and this relationship did not differ by sex. However, neither actual nor perceived object control competence were associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity. Young children's perceived ball skill abilities appear to relate to actual competence. In older children, object control skill is associated with physical activity, so targeting young children's object control skills may be an intervention priority.
Do perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between fundamental motor skill proficiency and physical activity levels of children in kindergarten?, Crane J, Naylor P, Cook R, et.al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health , Volume 12(7), pp.954-961, (2015). It is known that perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between motor skill proficiency and physical activity among older children. This study examined kindergarten children’s perceptions of physical competence as a mediator of the relationship between motor skill proficiency as a predictor variable and physical activity levels as the outcome variable. Participants were 116 children, mean age 5 years and 7 months, from ten schools in British Columbia, Canada. This study found that, on average, perceptions of physical competence were generally positive and physical activity levels were quite high. Motor skills levels were in the mid-range, with locomotor skill proficiency scores higher than object control skill scores. Object control predicted perceived physical competence. The bidirectional relationship between object control skills and physical activity suggests that motor skill development is both an outcome of, and a precursor for, physical activity.
Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity, Loprinzi P, Davis R and Fu Y, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 2, pp.833-838, (2015). The authors provide an overview of current empirical research related to early motor skill development and its impact on child and adult physical activity. There is consistent evidence showing that adequate motor skill competence, particularly locomotor and gross motor skills, is associated with increased physical activity levels during the preschool, child, and adolescent years. Early motor skill development also influences enjoyment of physical activity and long-term motor skill performance. The physical education setting appears to be a well-suited environment for motor skill development and strategies that target motor skill development across the childhood years are recommended.
Contribution of organized and non-organized activity to children's motor skills and fitness, Hardy L, O’Hara B, Rogers K, et.al., Journal of School Health, Volume 84(11), pp.690-696, (November 2014). This study examined the associations between children's organised physical activity (OPA), non-organised physical activity (NOPA), and two health-related outcomes – fundamental movement skill (FMS) and fitness in a sample of children aged 10-16 years. The authors concluded that both OPA and NOPA are important contributors to children's health-related outcomes. Among the girls, OPA was more strongly associated with both fitness and FMS competency. These findings support the importance of providing children with opportunities to engage in a range of daily physical activities, both organised (school physical education programs and school sport) and non-organised activities (active transport to school, play, and social sport).
Correlates of youth sport attrition: A review and future directions, Balisha S, Rainhama D, Blancharda C, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 15(4), pp.429-439, (July 2014). Given the potential benefits of youth sport, this study sought to identify correlates (i.e. factors) of youth sport attrition and evaluate the strength of evidence for each correlate. One hundred forty-one distinct correlates were examined from published literature between 1982 and 2012. Reasons for attrition were identified as being biological, intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy related. In total, 11 correlates were categorized as having a high quality level of evidence and 10 as having a low quality. High quality correlates included, among others, age, autonomy, perceived competence, relatedness, and task climate.
Changes in physical fitness and sports participation among children with different levels of motor competence: A two-year longitudinal study, Fransen J, Deprez D, Pion J, et.al., Pediatric Exercise Science, Volume 26(1), pp.11-21, (2014). The goal of this study was to investigate differences in physical fitness and sports participation over two years in children between the ages of 6 and 10 years; with relatively high, average and low motor competence. Children with high motor competence scored better on physical fitness tests and participated in sports more often. Since physical fitness levels between groups changed similarly over time, low motor competent children might be at risk of being less physically fit throughout their life. Furthermore, since low motor competent children participate less in sports, they have fewer opportunities of developing motor abilities and physical fitness and this may further prevent them from catching up with their peers having average or high motor competence.
Australian children lack the basic movement skills to be active and healthy, Barnett L, Hardy L, Lubans D, et.al., Health Promotion Journal of Australia , Volume 24(2), pp.82-84, (July 2013). This commentary puts forth the position that primary schools must increase children’s opportunities to learn and develop fundamental movement skills through multiple sources and settings – unstructured active play, quality physical education, school sport and community-based programs.
Benefits of early development of eye-hand coordination: evidence from the LOOK longitudinal study, Telford RD, Cunningham R, Telford RM, et.al., Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 23(5), pp.e263-2269, (2013). This study looked at the longitudinal and cross-sectional relationships between eye-hand coordination (EHC), cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity level, percent body fat and body image, and organised sport participation of boys and girls at 8 years and again at 10 years of age. Analyses showed that boys and girls with better EHC were significantly fitter and a longitudinal relationship showed that girls who improved their EHC over the two years became fitter. There was also evidence that children with better EHC possessed a more positive body image. Even at age 8 years, boys and girls participating in organised sport possessed better EHC than non-participants. These data provide evidence for the premise that early acquisition of this single motor skill promotes the development of a child's fitness, body image, and participation in sport.
Child, family and environmental correlates of children's motor skill proficiency, Barnett L, Hinkley T, Okely A , et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 16(4), pp.332-336, (2013). This study looked at what factors were correlated with motor skill proficiency among 76 Australian preschool children, 34 boys and 42 girls (mean age 4.1 years). The researchers found that age, prior swimming lessons, and access to home exercise/sports equipment were positively associated with motor skill proficiency. These factors explained 20% of the variance in motor skill. In addition, gender, parental involvement in play activity, and the amount of unstructured physical activity that was classified as moderate-to-vigorous in intensity, accounted for 32% of the variance in object control skill.
Thirteen-year trends in child and adolescent fundamental movement skills: 1997–2010, Hardy L, Barnett L, Espinel P, et.al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 45(10), pp.1965-1970, (2013). This study examined changes in the physical competency of New South Wales school children on five common Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS): sprint run, vertical jump, catch, overarm throw, and kick. Serial surveys spanning 13 years were used to collect data. At each survey children's competency was low, rarely above 50 per cent. Between 1997 and 2004 both boys and girls improved in their competency for the five FMS areas, with the exception of the overarm throw in high school girls. These improvements coincided with the distribution of resources to government schools that supported the teaching of FMS and the use of physical education specialists. The observed improvements in FMS competency to 2004 were attributed to changes in school policies and practices. In 2010 overall competency remained low and data suggests that the current delivery of FMS programs requires stronger positioning within the school curriculum. Strategies to improve children's physical activity should consider ensuring children are taught skills and acquire competency so they can enjoy being physically active and engage in a variety of sports.
Why do children take part in, and remain involved in sport? a literature review and discussion of implications for coaches, Bailey R, Cope E and Pearce G, International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 7(1), pp.55-74, (2013). This review found that children’s participation in sport is mediated by five primary factors: (1) perception of competence; (2) fun and enjoyment; (3) parents; (4) learning new skills; and (5) friends and peers. These findings suggest that, in addition to the generally acknowledged psychological factors, the social-cultural context in which children play influences their motivations to participate.
Differences in physical fitness and gross motor coordination in boys aged 6-12 years specializing in one versus sampling more than one sport, Fransen J, Pion J, Vandendriessche J, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 30(4), pp.379-386, (January 2012). This study investigated the effect of sampling various sports and of spending many or few hours in sports on fitness and gross motor coordination. Subjects were boys (N=735) in three age groups (6–8, 8–10, and 10–12 years), they were profiled using a fitness test battery; a physical activity questionnaire; and tests of motor competency. Analysis of the data suggests an acute positive effect of many hours in sports and a latent positive effect of early sampling on fitness and gross motor coordination. Multiple comparisons revealed that boys aged 10–12 years, who spent many hours in various sports, performed better on gross motor coordination tests than boys specialising in a single sport. These results highlight the importance of spending sufficient hours in sports participation and sampling various sports in the development of fitness and gross motor coordination.
Prevalence and correlates of low Fundamental Movement Skill competency in children, Hardy L, Reinten-Reynolds T, Espinel P, et.al., Pediatrics, Volume 130(2), pp.e390-e398, (August 2012). This study examined the demographic and health-related characteristics of Australian school-aged children assessed as having low competency in fundamental movement skills (FMS). Overall, the prevalence of students with low motor skill competency was high. Girls with low socioeconomic status (SES) were twice as likely to be less competent in locomotor skills compared with high SES peers. Among boys, there was a strong association between low competency in FMS and the likelihood of being from non–English-speaking cultural backgrounds. There was a clear and consistent association between low competency in FMS and inadequate cardiorespiratory fitness. It was concluded that primary school-based interventions focusing on skill acquisition, as well as fitness education, could significantly improve health-related fitness and physical activity levels in older children.
