Show This material is available primarily for archival purposes. Telephone numbers or other contact information may be out of date; please see current contact information at media contacts. Early Years: 1960s-1994. The Internet that many of us take for granted today arose from a series of government-funded computer networking efforts. In 1969, the precursor to the Internet began with the U.S. Defense Department's ARPAnet. ARPA-funded researchers developed many of the protocols still used for most Internet communication. Several other agencies also developed networks so their researchers could communicate and share data. In 1981, for example, the National Science Foundation (NSF) provided a grant to establish the Computer Science Network (CSNET) to provide networking services to all university computer scientists. In 1985, NSF considered how it could provide greater access to the high-end computing resources at its recently established supercomputer centers. Because NSF intended the supercomputers to be shared by scientists and engineers around the country, any viable solution had to link many research universities to the centers. NSFNET went online in 1986 and connected the supercomputer centers at 56,000 bits per second—the speed of a typical computer modem today. In a short time, the network became congested and, by 1988, its links were upgraded to 1.5 megabits per second. A variety of regional research and education networks, supported in part by NSF, were connected to the NSFNET backbone, thus extending the Internet’s reach throughout the United States. Creation of NSFNET was an intellectual leap. It was the first large-scale implementation of Internet technologies in a complex environment of many independently operated networks. NSFNET forced the Internet community to iron out technical issues arising from the rapidly increasing number of computers and address many practical details of operations, management and conformance. Throughout its existence, NSFNET carried, at no cost to institutions, any U.S. research and education traffic that could reach it. At the same time, the number of Internet-connected computers grew from 2,000 in 1985 to more than 2 million in 1993. To handle the increasing data traffic, the NSFNET backbone became the first national 45-megabits-per-second Internet network in 1991. The history of NSFNET and NSF's supercomputing centers also overlapped with the rise of personal computers and the launch of the World Wide Web in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee and colleagues at CERN, the European Organisation for Nuclear Research, in Geneva, Switzerland. The NSF centers developed many tools for organizing, locating and navigating through information, including one of the first widely used Web server applications. But perhaps the most spectacular success was Mosaic, the first freely available Web browser to allow Web pages to include both graphics and text, which was developed in 1993 by students and staff working at the NSF-supported National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. In less than 18 months, NCSA Mosaic became the Web "browser of choice" for more than a million users and set off an exponential growth in the number of Web servers as well as Web surfers. Mosaic was the progenitor of modern browsers such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Privatization: 1993-1998. Commercial firms noted the popularity and effectiveness of the growing Internet and built their own networks. The proliferation of private suppliers led to an NSF solicitation in 1993 that outlined a new Internet architecture that largely remains in place today. From that solicitation, NSF awarded contracts in 1995 for three network access points, to provide connection points between commercial networks, and one routing arbiter, to ensure an orderly exchange of traffic across the Internet. In addition, NSF signed a cooperative agreement to establish the next-generation very-high-performance Backbone Network Service. A more prominent milestone was the decommissioning of the NSFNET backbone in April 1995. In the years following NSFNET, NSF helped navigate the road to a self-governing and commercially viable Internet during a period of remarkable growth. The most visible, and most contentious, component of the Internet transition was the registration of domain names. Domain name registration associates a human-readable character string (such as “nsf.gov”) with Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, which computers use to locate one another. The Department of Defense funded early registration efforts because most registrants were military users and awardees. By the early 1990s, academic institutions comprised the majority of new registrations, so the Federal Networking Council (a group of government agencies involved in networking) asked NSF to assume responsibility for non-military Internet registration. When NSF awarded a five-year agreement for this service to Network Solutions, Inc. (NSI), in 1993, there were 7,500 domain names. In September 1995, as the demand for Internet registration became largely commercial (97 percent) and grew by orders of magnitude, the NSF authorized NSI to charge a fee for domain name registration. Previously, NSF had subsidized the cost of registering all domain names. At that time, there were 120,000 registered domain names. In September 1998, when NSF’s agreement with NSI expired, the number of registered domain names had passed 2 million. The year 1998 marked the end of NSF’s direct role in the Internet. That year, the network access points and routing arbiter functions were transferred to the commercial sector. And after much debate, the Department of Commerce’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration formalized an agreement with the non-profit Internet Corporation for Assigned Numbers and Names (ICANN) for oversight of domain name registration. Today, anyone can register a domain name through a number of ICANN-accredited registrars. NSF after NSFNET. The decommissioning of NSFNET and privatization of the Internet did not mark the end of NSF’s involvement in networking. NSF continues to support many research projects to develop new networking tools, educational uses of the Internet and network-based applications. Through its programs, NSF helps research and education institutions—including those serving underrepresented minorities, rural areas, and Native American reservations—make and enhance their connections to the Internet. NSF has also been instrumental in providing international connections services that have bridged the U.S. network infrastructure with countries and regions including Europe, Mongolia, Africa, Latin America, Russia and the Pacific Rim. In addition, NSF has continued to extend the reach of the highest-performance U.S. research and education networks by supporting connectivity and collaborations with their counterparts in Canada, Europe and Asia. NSF Internet Experts Larry Landweber, CISE senior advisor on networking, proposed the CSNET concept in 1979 and organized the workshops that led to its creation in 1981. He was an advisor to NSF during the development of NSFNET and helped establish the first Internet gateways between the United States and countries in Europe, Asia and Latin America. , 703-292-8900. George Strawn, currently NSF’s Chief Information Officer, was the NSFNET program director from 1991 to 1993. From 1993 to 1995, he was involved with defining and deploying the privatized Internet architecture, and from 1995 to 1998 as networking division director, he led NSF's efforts in the Next Generation Internet Initiative. , 703-292-8102. -NSF- Media Contacts The U.S. National Science Foundation propels the nation forward by advancing fundamental research in all fields of science and engineering. NSF supports research and people by providing facilities, instruments and funding to support their ingenuity and sustain the U.S. as a global leader in research and innovation. With a fiscal year 2022 budget of $8.8 billion, NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and institutions. Each year, NSF receives more than 40,000 competitive proposals and makes about 11,000 new awards. Those awards include support for cooperative research with industry, Arctic and Antarctic research and operations, and U.S. participation in international scientific efforts.
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The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks -- a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANET. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster. Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. It is used by many as the primary source of information consumption, and fueled the creation and growth of its own social ecosystem through social media and content sharing. Furthermore, e-commerce, or online shopping, has become one of the largest uses of the Internet. How the Internet worksPhysically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is its use of a set of protocols called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Two recent adaptations of Internet technology, the Intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP protocol. The Internet can be seen as having two major components: network protocols and hardware. The protocols, such as the TCP/IP suite, present sets of rules that devices must follow in order to complete tasks. Without this common collection of rules, machines would not be able to communicate. The protocols are also responsible for translating the alphabetic text of a message into electronic signals that can be transmitted over the Internet, and then back again into legible, alphabetic text. Hardware, the second major component of the Internet, includes everything from the computer or smartphone that is used to access the Internet to the cables that carry information from one device to another. Additional types of hardware include satellites, radios, cell phone towers, routers and servers. These various types of hardware are the connections within the network. Devices such as computers, smartphones and laptops are end points, or clients, while the machines that store the information are the servers. The transmission lines that exchange the data can either be wireless signals from satellites or 4G and cell phone towers, or physical lines, such as cables and fiber optics. The process of transferring information from one device to another relies on packet switching. Each computer connected to the Internet is assigned a unique IP address that allows the device to be recognized. When one device attempts to send a message to another device, the data is sent over the Internet in the form of manageable packets. Each packet is assigned a port number that will connect it to its endpoint. A packet that has both a unique IP address and port number can be translated from alphabetic text into electronic signals by travelling through the layers of the OSI model from the top application layer to the bottom physical layer. The message will then be sent over the Internet where it is received by the Internet service provider's (ISP) router. The router will examine the destination address assigned to each packet and determine where to send it. Eventually, the packet reaches the client and travels in reverse from the bottom physical layer of the OSI model to the top application layer. During this process, the routing data -- the port number and IP address -- is stripped from the packet, thus allowing the data to be translated back into alphabetic text and completing the transmission process. Uses of the internetIn general, the Internet can be used to communicate across large or small distances, share information from any place in the world and access information or answers to almost any question in moments. Some specific examples of how the Internet is used include:
Other examples include: Difference between the World Wide Web and the InternetThe key difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW or the Web) is that the Internet is a global connection of networks while the Web is a collection of information that can be accessed using the Internet. In other words, the Internet is the infrastructure and the Web is a service on top. The Web is the most widely used part of the Internet. Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-referencing. In most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest; often this text is also underlined. When a user selects one of these words or phrases, they will be transferred to the related site or page. Buttons, images, or portions of images are also used as hyperlinks. The Web provides access to billions of pages of information. Web browsing is done through a Web browser, the most popular of which are Google Chrome, Firefox and Internet Explorer. The appearance of a particular Web site may vary slightly depending on the browser used. Later or more updated versions of a particular browser are able to render more complex features, such as animation, virtual reality, sound and music files. Security and the InternetLarge amounts of information, both public and private, are collected across the Internet, opening users up to the risk of data breaches and other security threats. Hackers and crackers can break into networks and systems and steal information such as login information or bank and credit card account records. Some steps that can be taken to protect online privacy include:
Additionally, there is an element of the Internet called the dark web. The dark web is hidden and inaccessible through standard browsers. Instead, it uses the Tor and I2P browsers which allow users to remain entirely anonymous. While this anonymity can be a great way to protect an online user's security and free speech or for the government to keep classified data hidden, the dark web also creates an environment that facilitates cybercrime, the transfer of illegal goods and terrorism. Social impact of the InternetThe social impact of the Internet can be seen as both positive and negative. On one side, people argue that the Internet has increased the risk of isolation, alienation and withdrawal from society, pointing to increases in an emotional response called FOMO, or the fear of missing out. On the other side, people believe the Internet to have had the opposite effect on society, arguing that the Internet increases civic engagement, sociability and the intensity of relationships. Whether the impacts are good or bad, the Internet has changed the way society interacts and connects. One example of change is the increased focus on personal growth and a decline in a community that is determined by work, family and space. People are now constructing social relationships based on individual interests, projects and values. Communities are being formed by like-minded individuals not only offline and in person, but through the Internet and the multitude of online environments which it creates and offers. Social networking sites -- like Facebook and LinkedIn -- have become the preferred platforms for both businesses and individuals looking to perform all kinds of tasks and communicate with others. Benefits of the InternetBenefits of the Internet include:
History of the InternetThe ARPANet, the predecessor of the Internet, was first deployed in 1969. In 1983, the ARPANet transitioned into using the TCP/IP open networking protocol suite and in 1985, the National Science Foundation Network (NSFN) designed the network to connect university computer science departments around the country. Communications over the Internet greatly improved in 1989 when the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) was created, giving different computer platforms the ability to connect to the same Internet sites. In 1993, the Mosaic Web browser was created. The Internet has continued to grow and evolve over the years of its existence. IPv6, for example, was designed to anticipate enormous future expansion in the number of available IP addresses. In a related development, the IoT is the burgeoning environment in which almost any entity or object can be provided with a unique identifier (UID) and the ability to transfer data automatically over the Internet. |
____ was founded in 1983 and was one of the first developers of network operating systems.
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