Organizing to Show Relationships Once you have collected data, you must find some ways to organize it. Organizing includes two processes: grouping and pattering. Well-organized messages group similar items together; ideas follow a sequence that helps the reader understand relationships and accept the writer’s views. Unorganized messages proceed free-form, jumping from on thought to another. Such messages fail to emphasize important points. Puzzled readers can’t see how the prices fit together, and they become frustrated and irritated. Two simple techniques can help you organize data: the scratch list and the outline. In developing simple messages, some writers make a quick scratch list of the topics they wish to cover. They then compose a message at their computers directly for the scratch list. Most writers, though, need to organize their ideas-especially if the project is complex-into hierarchy, such as an outline. The beauty of preparing an outline is that is gives you a chance to organize your thinking before you get bogged down in word choice and sentence structure.
The Direct Pattern After developing an outline, you will need to decide where in the message to place the main idea. Placing the main idea at the beginning of the message is called the direct pattern. In the direct pattern the main idea comes first, followed by details, an explanation, or evidence. Placing the main idea later in the message (after the details, explanation, or evidence) is called the indirect pattern. The pattern you select is determined by how you expect the audience to react to the message. In preparing to write any message, you need to anticipate the audience’s reaction to your ideas and frame your message accordingly. When you expect the reader to be pleased, mildly interested, or, at worst, neutral – use the direct pattern. That is, put your main point – the purpose of your message – in the first or second sentence. Compare the direct and indirect patterns in the following memo openings. Notice how long it takes to get to the main idea in the indirect opening.
Explanations, background, and details should follow the direct opening. What’s important is getting to the main idea quickly. This direct method, also called front-loading, has at least three advantages:
This front-loading technique works the best with audiences who are likely to be receptive to or at least not likely to disagree with what you have to say. Typical business messages that follow the direct pattern include routine requests and responses, orders and acknowledgements, nonsensitive memos, e-mail messages, informational reports, and informational oral presentations. All these tasks have one element in common: none has a sensitive subject that will upset the reader. The Indirect Pattern When you expect the audience to be uninterested, unwilling, displeased, or perhaps even hostile, the indirect pattern is more appropriate. In this pattern you don’t reveal the main idea until after you have offered an explanation and evidence, this approach works well with three kinds of messages: (a) bad news, (b) ideas that require persuasion, and (c) sensitive news, especially when being transmitted to superiors. The indirect pattern has these benefits:
Typical business messages that could be developed indirectly include letters and memos that refuse requests, reject claims, and deny credit. Persuasive requests, sales letters, and sensitive messages, and some reports and oral presentations also benefit from the indirect strategy. In summary, business messages may be organized directly, with the main idea first, or indirectly, with the main idea delayed. Although these two patterns cover many communication problems, they should be considered neither universal nor unquestionable. Every business transaction is distinct. Some messages are mixed; part good news, part bad; part goodwill, part persuasion. Go To Homework 3.1 Composing Effective Sentences The most compelling and effective messages contain a variety of sentences rather than just one repeated pattern. Effective messages also avoid common sentence faults, and they achieve emphasis and parallelism with special sentence-writing techniques. Achieving Variety With Four Sentence Types Messages that repeat the same sentence pattern become boring. The way you construct your sentences can make your message interesting and readable. To avoid monotony and to add spark to your writing, use a variety of sentence types. 1. A Simple sentence, shown in the following example, contains one complete thought. Our team completed the project. 2. A compound sentence contains two complete but related thoughts. The two thoughts may be joined by (a) by a conjunction such as and, but, or or; (b) by a semicolon; or (c) by a conjunctive adverb such as however, consequently, and therefore. The team project was challenging, and we were happy with the results. The team project was challenging; we were happy with the results. The team project was challenging; however, we were happy with the results. 3. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a dependent clause. Dependent clauses are often introduced by words such as although, since, because, when, and if. When we finished the team project, we held a team party. 4. A compound-complex sentence contains a least two independent clauses and one dependent clause. Because these sentences are usually long, use them sparingly. Although this team project is completed, soon we will begin work on another; however, it will be less challenging. Controlling Sentence Length Regardless of the type of sentence, remember that sentence length can influence readability. Because your goal is to communicate clearly, try to limit your sentences to about 20 or fewer words. Reader comprehension drops off markedly as sentences becomes longer.
Avoiding Three Common Sentence Faults As you craft your sentences, beware of three common traps: fragments, run-on, sentences, and common-splice sentences. If any of these faults appears in a business message, the writer immediately loses credibility. Fragments. One of the most serious errors a writer can make it punctuating a fragment as if it were a complete sentence. A fragment is usually a broken-off part of a complex sentence. Fragments often can be identified by the words that introduce them- words such as although, as, because, even, except, for example, if, instead of, since, such as, that, which, and when. These words introduce dependent clauses. Make sure clauses always connect to independent clauses.
Run-On (Fused) Sentences. A sentence with two independent clauses must by joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but) or by a semicolon. Without a conjunction or a semicolon, a run-on sentence results.
Comma-Splice Sentences. A comma splice results when a writer joins two independent clauses with a comma. Independent clauses may be joined with a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. Notice that clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions require only a comma. Clauses joined by coordinating adverb require a semicolon.
Go To Homework 3.2 Improving Writing Techniques Writers can significantly improve their messages by working on a few writing techniques. In this section we focus on emphasizing and de-emphasizing and de-emphasizing ideas, using active and passive voice strategically, developing parallelism, and avoiding dangling and misplaced modifiers. Developing Emphasis When you are talking with someone, you can emphasize your main ideas by saying them loudly or by repeating them slowly. You could even pound the table if you want to show real emphasis! Another way you could signal the relative importance of an idea is by raising your eyebrows or by shaking your head or whispering in a low voice. But when you write your must rely on other means to tell your readers which ideas are more important than others. Emphasis writing can be achieved primarily in two ways: mechanically or stylistically. Achieving Emphasis Through Mechanics. To emphasize an idea in print, a writer may use any of the following devices.
Other means of achieving mechanical emphasis include the arrangement of space, color, lines, boxes, columns, titles, headings, and subheadings. Achieving Emphasis Through Style. Although mechanical means are occasionally appropriate, more often a writer achieves emphasis stylistically. That is, the writer chooses words carefully and constructs sentences skillfully to emphasize main ideas and de-emphasize minor or negative ideas. Here are four suggestions for emphasizing ideas stylistically: 1. Use vivid words. Vivid words are emphatic because the reader can picture ideas clearly.
2. Label the main idea. If an idea is significant, tell the reader.
3. Place the important idea first or last in the sentence. Ideas have less competition from surrounding words when they appear first or last in a sentence. Observe how the concept of productivity can be emphasized by its position in the sentence.
4. Place the important ideas in a simple sentence or in an independent clause. Don’t dilute the effect of the idea by making it share the spotlight with other words and clauses.
De-emphasizing When Necessary. To de-emphasize an idea, such as bad news, try one of the following stylistic devices: 1. Use general words.
2. Place the bad news in a dependent clause connected to an independent clause with something positive. In sentences with dependent clauses, the main emphasis is always on the independent clause. Using Active and Passive Voice In composing messages, you may use active or passive voice to express your meaning. In active voice, the subject is the doer of the action (The manager hired Jim). In passive voice, the subject is acted upon (Jim was hired [by the manager]). Notice that in passive voice the attention shifts from the doer to the receiver of the action. You don’t even have to reveal the doer if you choose not to. Writers generally prefer active voice because it is more direct, clear, and concise. Nevertheless, passive voice is useful in certain instances, such as the following: · To emphasize an action or the recipient of the action. An investigation was launched. · To de-emphasize negative news. Cash refunds cannot be made. · To conceal the doer of an action. An error was made in our sales figures. How can you tell whether a verb is active or passive? Identify the subject of the sentence and decide whether the subject is doing the acting or is being acted upon. For example, in the sentence An appointment was made for January 1, the subject is appointment. The subject is being acted upon; therefore the verb (was made) is passive. Another clue in identifying passive-voice verbs, such as is, are, was, were, be, being, or been. Use active voice for directness, vigor, and clarity.
Use passive voice to be tactful or to emphasize the action rather than the doer.
Achieving Parallelism Parallelism is a skillful writing technique that involves balanced writing. Sentences written so that their parts are balanced or parallel are easy to read and understand. To achieve parallel construction, use similar structures to express similar ideas. For example, the words computing, recording, and storing are parallel because the words all end in –ing. To express the list as computing, coding, recording, and storage is disturbing because the last item is not what the reader expects. Try to match nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, and clauses and clauses. Avoid mixing active-voice verbs with passive-voice verbs with passive-voice verbs. Your goal is to keep the wording balanced when expressing similar ideas..
Avoiding Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers For clarity, modifiers must be close to the words they describe or limit. A modifier dangles when the word or phrase it describes is missing from its sentences (After working overtime, the report was finally finished). This sentence says the report was working overtime. Revised, the sentence contains a logical subject: After working overtime, we finally finished the report. A modifier is misplaced when the word or phrase it describes is not close enough to be clear (Firefighters rescued a dog from a burning car that had a broken leg). Obviously, the car did not have a broken leg. The solution is to position the modifier closer to the word(s) it describes or limits: Firefighters rescued a dog with a broken leg from a burning car. Introductory verbal phrases are particularly dangerous; be sure to follow them immediately with the words they logically describe or modify. Try this trick for detecting and remedying many dangling modifiers. Ask the question Who? Or What? after any introductory phrase. The words immediately following should tell the reader who or what is performing the action. Try the who? Test on the first three danglers here:
Go To Homework 3.3 Drafting Powerful Paragraphs A paragraph is a group of sentences about one idea. Paragraphs are most effective when they contain (a) a topic sentence, (b) support sentences that expand and explain only the main idea, and (c) techniques to build coherence. Crafting Topic Sentences A topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. Business writers generally place the topic sentence first in the paragraph. It tells readers what to expect and helps them understand that paragraph’s central thought immediately. In the revision stage, you will check to be sure each paragraph has a topic sentence. Notice in the following examples how the topic sentence summarizes the main idea, which will be followed by support sentences explaining the topic sentence. Flexible work scheduling could immediately increase productivity and enhance employee satisfaction in our entire organization. [Support sentences explaining flex scheduling would expand the paragraph.] The chat function at our main Web site is not functioning as well as we had expected. [Support sentences would describe existing problems in the Web chat function.] Developing Support Sentences Topic sentences summarize the main idea of a paragraph. Support sentences illustrate, explain, or strengthen the topic sentence. One of the hardest things for beginning writers to remember is that all support sentences in the paragraph must relate to the topic sentence. Any other topics should be treated separately. Support sentences provide specific details, explanations, and evidence: Flexible work scheduling could immediately increase productivity and enhance employee satisfaction in our entire organization. Managers would be required to maintain their regular hours. For many other employees, though, flexible scheduling permits extra time to manage family responsibilities. Feeling less stress, employees are able to focus their attention better at work; therefore, they become more relaxed and more productive. Building Paragraph Coherence Paragraphs are coherent when ideas are linked – that is, when one idea leads logically to the next. Well-written paragraphs take the reader through a number of steps. When the author skips form Step 1 to Step 3 and forgets Step 2, the reader is lost. Several techniques allow the reader to follow your ideas:
Controlling Paragraph Length Although no rule regulates the length of paragraphs, business writers recognize the value of short paragraphs. Paragraphs with eight or fewer printed lines look inviting and readable. Long, solid chunks of print appear formidable. If a topic can’t be covered in eight or fewer printed lines (not sentences), consider breaking it into smaller segments. Composing the First Draft Once you have researched your topic, organized the data, and selected a pattern of organization, you are ready to begin composing. Communicators who haven’t completed the preparatory work often suffer from “writer’s block” and sit staring at a piece of paper or at the computer screen. Getting started is easier if you have organized your ideas and established a plan. Composition is also easier if you have organized your idea and established a plan. Composition is also easier if you have a quiet place in which to concentrate. As you begin composing, keep in mind that you that you are writing the first draft, not the final copy. You might be tempted to write a first draft by hand and then transfer it to the computer. This wastes time and develops poor habits. Summing Up and Looking Forward This chapter explained the second phase of the writing process, which includes researching, organizing, and composing. Before beginning a message, every writer collects data, either formally or informally. For most simple messages, you would look in the files, talk with your boss, interview the target audience, or possibly conduct an informal survey. Information for message is then organized into a list or an outline. Depending on the expected reaction of the receiver, the message can be organized directly (for positive reactions) or indirectly (for negative reactions or when persuasion is necessary). In
composing the first draft, writers should use a variety of sentence types and
avoid fragments, run-ons, and comma splices.
Emphasis can be achieved through mechanics (underlining, italics, font
changes, all caps, and so forth) or through style (using vivid words, labeling
the main idea, and positioning the important ideas). Important writing techniques include
skillfully using active- and passive-voice verbs, developing parallelism, and
avoiding dangling or misplaced modifiers.
Powerful paragraphs result from crafting a topic sentence, developing
support sentences, and building coherence with the planned repetition of key
ideas, proper use of pronouns, and inclusion of transitional expressions. Go To Homework 3.4 Page 2
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You should strive to write paragraphs with eight or fewer printed lines
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