What was the biggest effect of the American Revolution?

The Revolutionary War (1775-83), also known as the American Revolution, arose from growing tensions between residents of Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies and the colonial government, which represented the British crown. Skirmishes between British troops and colonial militiamen in Lexington and Concord in April 1775 kicked off the armed conflict, and by the following summer, the rebels were waging a full-scale war for their independence. France entered the American Revolution on the side of the colonists in 1778, turning what had essentially been a civil war into an international conflict. After French assistance helped the Continental Army force the British surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, the Americans had effectively won their independence, though fighting would not formally end until 1783.

Causes of the Revolutionary War

For more than a decade before the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775, tensions had been building between colonists and the British authorities.

The French and Indian War, or Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), brought new territories under the power of the crown, but the expensive conflict lead to new and unpopular taxes. Attempts by the British government to raise revenue by taxing the colonies (notably the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Acts of 1767 and the Tea Act of 1773) met with heated protest among many colonists, who resented their lack of representation in Parliament and demanded the same rights as other British subjects. 

Colonial resistance led to violence in 1770, when British soldiers opened fire on a mob of colonists, killing five men in what was known as the Boston Massacre. After December 1773, when a band of Bostonians altered their appearance to hide their identity boarded British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor during the Boston Tea Party, an outraged Parliament passed a series of measures (known as the Intolerable, or Coercive Acts) designed to reassert imperial authority in Massachusetts.

Did you know? Now most famous as a traitor to the American cause, General Benedict Arnold began the Revolutionary War as one of its earliest heroes, helping lead rebel forces in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775.

In response, a group of colonial delegates (including George Washington of Virginia, John and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, Patrick Henry of Virginia and John Jay of New York) met in Philadelphia in September 1774 to give voice to their grievances against the British crown. This First Continental Congress did not go so far as to demand independence from Britain, but it denounced taxation without representation, as well as the maintenance of the British army in the colonies without their consent. It issued a declaration of the rights due every citizen, including life, liberty, property, assembly and trial by jury. The Continental Congress voted to meet again in May 1775 to consider further action, but by that time violence had already broken out. 

On the night of April 18, 1775, hundreds of British troops marched from Boston to nearby Concord, Massachusetts in order to seize an arms cache. Paul Revere and other riders sounded the alarm, and colonial militiamen began mobilizing to intercept the Redcoats. On April 19, local militiamen clashed with British soldiers in the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts, marking the “shot heard round the world” that signified the start of the Revolutionary War. 

Declaring Independence (1775-76)

When the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, delegates–including new additions Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson–voted to form a Continental Army, with Washington as its commander in chief. On June 17, in the Revolution’s first major battle, colonial forces inflicted heavy casualties on the British regiment of General William Howe at Breed’s Hill in Boston. The engagement, known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, ended in British victory, but lent encouragement to the revolutionary cause. 

Throughout that fall and winter, Washington’s forces struggled to keep the British contained in Boston, but artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga in New York helped shift the balance of that struggle in late winter. The British evacuated the city in March 1776, with Howe and his men retreating to Canada to prepare a major invasion of New York.

By June 1776, with the Revolutionary War in full swing, a growing majority of the colonists had come to favor independence from Britain. On July 4, the Continental Congress voted to adopt the Declaration of Independence, drafted by a five-man committee including Franklin and John Adams but written mainly by Jefferson. That same month, determined to crush the rebellion, the British government sent a large fleet, along with more than 34,000 troops to New York. In August, Howe’s Redcoats routed the Continental Army on Long Island; Washington was forced to evacuate his troops from New York City by September. Pushed across the Delaware River, Washington fought back with a surprise attack in Trenton, New Jersey, on Christmas night and won another victory at Princeton to revive the rebels’ flagging hopes before making winter quarters at Morristown.

Saratoga: Revolutionary War Turning Point (1777-78)

British strategy in 1777 involved two main prongs of attack aimed at separating New England (where the rebellion enjoyed the most popular support) from the other colonies. To that end, General John Burgoyne’s army marched south from Canada toward a planned meeting with Howe’s forces on the Hudson River. Burgoyne’s men dealt a devastating loss to the Americans in July by retaking Fort Ticonderoga, while Howe decided to move his troops southward from New York to confront Washington’s army near the Chesapeake Bay. The British defeated the Americans at Brandywine Creek, Pennsylvania, on September 11 and entered Philadelphia on September 25. Washington rebounded to strike Germantown in early October before withdrawing to winter quarters near Valley Forge.

Howe’s move had left Burgoyne’s army exposed near Saratoga, New York, and the British suffered the consequences of this on September 19, when an American force under General Horatio Gates defeated them at Freeman’s Farm in the first Battle of Saratoga. After suffering another defeat on October 7 at Bemis Heights (the Second Battle of Saratoga), Burgoyne surrendered his remaining forces on October 17. The American victory Saratoga would prove to be a turning point of the American Revolution, as it prompted France (which had been secretly aiding the rebels since 1776) to enter the war openly on the American side, though it would not formally declare war on Great Britain until June 1778. The American Revolution, which had begun as a civil conflict between Britain and its colonies, had become a world war.

Stalemate in the North, Battle in the South (1778-81)

During the long, hard winter at Valley Forge, Washington’s troops benefited from the training and discipline of the Prussian military officer Baron Friedrich von Steuben (sent by the French) and the leadership of the French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette. On June 28, 1778, as British forces under Sir Henry Clinton (who had replaced Howe as supreme commander) attempted to withdraw from Philadelphia to New York, Washington’s army attacked them near Monmouth, New Jersey. The battle effectively ended in a draw, as the Americans held their ground, but Clinton was able to get his army and supplies safely to New York. On July 8, a French fleet commanded by the Comte d’Estaing arrived off the Atlantic coast, ready to do battle with the British. A joint attack on the British at Newport, Rhode Island, in late July failed, and for the most part the war settled into a stalemate phase in the North.

The Americans suffered a number of setbacks from 1779 to 1781, including the defection of General Benedict Arnold to the British and the first serious mutinies within the Continental Army. In the South, the British occupied Georgia by early 1779 and captured Charleston, South Carolina in May 1780. British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis then began an offensive in the region, crushing Gates’ American troops at Camden in mid-August, though the Americans scored a victory over Loyalist forces at King’s Mountain in early October. Nathanael Green replaced Gates as the American commander in the South that December. Under Green’s command, General Daniel Morgan scored a victory against a British force led by Colonel Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens, South Carolina, on January 17, 1781.

Revolutionary War Draws to a Close (1781-83)

By the fall of 1781, Greene’s American forces had managed to force Cornwallis and his men to withdraw to Virginia’s Yorktown peninsula, near where the York River empties into Chesapeake Bay. Supported by a French army commanded by General Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, Washington moved against Yorktown with a total of around 14,000 soldiers, while a fleet of 36 French warships offshore prevented British reinforcement or evacuation. Trapped and overpowered, Cornwallis was forced to surrender his entire army on October 19. Claiming illness, the British general sent his deputy, Charles O’Hara, to surrender; after O’Hara approached Rochambeau to surrender his sword (the Frenchman deferred to Washington), Washington gave the nod to his own deputy, Benjamin Lincoln, who accepted it.

Though the movement for American independence effectively triumphed at the Battle of Yorktown, contemporary observers did not see that as the decisive victory yet. British forces remained stationed around Charleston, and the powerful main army still resided in New York. Though neither side would take decisive action over the better part of the next two years, the British removal of their troops from Charleston and Savannah in late 1782 finally pointed to the end of the conflict. British and American negotiators in Paris signed preliminary peace terms in Paris late that November, and on September 3, 1783, Great Britain formally recognized the independence of the United States in the Treaty of Paris. At the same time, Britain signed separate peace treaties with France and Spain (which had entered the conflict in 1779), bringing the American Revolution to a close after eight long years.

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PHOTO GALLERIES

In 1774, 56 deputies representing almost every American colony convened at Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia to address their many grievances against the British. This First Continental Congress included George Washington and John Adams.

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In October of 1774, the First Continental Congress officially petitioned King George III to resolve their grievances. In conjunction with the petition, Congress called for a general boycott of British goods.

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In May of 1775, the Second Continental Congress convened at the State house (now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia. New members included Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson (photograph from 1974).

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Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) , a Virginian, drafted the Declaration of Independence in the early summer of 1776.

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From the left, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Franklin and Adams helped revise the Declaration of Independence, which drew from established political philosophy in justifying the need for independence.

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On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence.

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The original Declaration of Independence, signed by 56 delegates of the Second Continental Congress.

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The Liberty Bell was rung to celebrate the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence on July 8, 1776 in Philadelphia

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An often outspoken member of Congress, Bostonian John Adams (1735-1826) fought passionately for independence. Adams became the second President of the United States.

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A printer, publisher, inventor, scientist, and diplomat, Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) represented the Continental Congress in France during the Revolution.

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The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, signified the conclusion of the American Revolution. Congressmen John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay signed on behalf of the United States.

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King George III (1738-1820) was the ruler of Great Britain during the American Revolution.

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George Washington (1732- 1799), commander of the Continental Army, became the first President of the United States.

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William Howe (1729-1814) was the commander in chief of the British army in North America between 1776-1778, leading the British in the Battle of Long Island.

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Henry Knox (1750-1806), an American general during the Revolution, became the first Secretary of War under the US Constitution. Knox is well known for bringing captured British artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston in 1776.

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Nathan Hale (1755-1776), was an American soldier and spy who was caught by the British and hanged. He is supposed to have said before his death: "My only regret is that I have but one life to lose for my country".

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At the Battle of Saratoga (1777), British general John Burgoyne (1722-1792, on the left) surrendered to American general Horatio Gates (1728-1806). The battle is often considered a turning point in the war.

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Baron Friedrich Von Steuben (1730-1794) was a German officer who served with the Continental Army by training the forces stationed at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777-1778.

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Benedict Arnold (1741-1801, on the left), an American officer who shifted his allegiances to Britain, handing papers to his British contact Major John Andre. Andre was later captured and Arnold's betrayal exposed.

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John Paul Jones (1747-1792) was an American naval war hero renowned for his victories in British waters during the American Revolution.

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General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) was defeated by American troops at Yorktown, Virginia, assuring the end of the American Revolution.

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The Boston Massacre (1770) pitted British soldiers against local workers and resulted in the death of five men. The event galvanized many towards the cause of independence from the British.

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A circle of cobblestones marks the site of the Boston massacre. In the background stands the Old State House, built in 1713 (photographed in 1995).

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In 1773, colonists dressed as Mohawk Indians threw 342 chests of tea belonging to the British East India Company into Boston harbor. They were protesting a tax on tea and a perceived British monopoly.

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In April of 1775, several local minutemen intercepted a British force of 700 in Lexington, MA. The minutemen intended to deny the British access to ammunition nearby. Shots were fired and a battle developed.

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After engaging the minutemen in Lexington, the British moved on to Concord, MA, where they were confronted at the North Bridge by several hundred colonists. The British ultimately withdrew.

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The first major battle of the Revolution, the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775) saw over 1,000 British and 450 American casualties.

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In July of 1775, General George Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in Cambridge, MA.

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1. Driven out of New York and into Pennsylvania, General George Washington regrouped his army and crossed the Delaware River to launch a victorious surprise attack on Hessian troops. The attack took place in Trenton, New Jersey around Christmas, 1776 (painting from 1851).

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On October 7, 1777, American forces under the command of General Horatio Gates defeated British troops in New York. British General John Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga, and on October 13th, surrendered.

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By the winter of 1777-1778, Washington's forces had relinquished Philadelphia to the British, setting up winter camp in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.

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In 1781, French troops joined American forces at Yorktown, Virginia and attacked British fortifications by land and sea. The campaign was successful, and British General Charles Cornwallis surrendered.

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This article announces the surrender of British General Cornwallis in 1781, all but assuring an American victory in the war.

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Through the Stamp Act (1765) the British imposed taxes on a variety of colonial goods. The act was met with anger and resistance, sometimes in the form of satirical fliers warning of the effects of the tax.

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This print by Paul Revere depicts the Boston massacre, a 1770 skirmish between British troops and a crowd in Boston, MA.

'The Bloody Massacre' engraving by Paul Revere. Credit: Bettmann/CORBIS

In 1776 Thomas Paine published Common Sense, which presented an argument for independence from Britain. Widely distributed, the pamphlet made a profound impact on public opinion.

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This poster urges brave and able-bodied young men to join forces with General Washington in the fight against the British.

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According to legend, George Washington visited Pennsylvanian seamstress Betsy Ross in 1776 and asked her to make a flag for the new United States.

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In 1777 the Continental Congress adopted the "Stars and Stripes" as the national flag of the United States.

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There were thirteen stars on the flag, each representing one of the colonies.

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The Besty Ross house in Philadelphia, PA

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