Why was the movie Black Panther so Popular give at least two Reasons

2018 Marvel Studios film

This article is about the 2018 superhero film. For other films with the same name, see Black panther (disambiguation).

Theatrical release poster

• Ryan Coogler
• Joe Robert Cole

Black Panther
by

• Stan Lee
• Jack Kirby

• Chadwick Boseman
• Michael B. Jordan
• Lupita Nyong'o
• Danai Gurira
• Martin Freeman
• Daniel Kaluuya
• Letitia Wright
• Winston Duke
• Angela Bassett
• Forest Whitaker
• Andy Serkis

• Michael P. Shawver
• Debbie Berman

Production
company

Marvel Studios

Release dates

• January 29, 2018 (2018-01-29) (Dolby Theatre)
• February 16, 2018 (2018-02-16) (United States)

Running time

Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the 18th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and it stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa is crowned king of Wakanda following his father's death, but he is challenged by Killmonger (Jordan), who plans to abandon the country's isolationist policies and begin a global revolution.

Wesley Snipes planned to make a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios listed a Black Panther film as one of ten films based on Marvel characters intended to be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was officially announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). Cole and Coogler had joined by then, with additional casting in May. Black Panther is the first Marvel Studios film with a Black director and a predominantly Black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017 at EUE/Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and in Busan, South Korea.

Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, as part of Phase Three of the MCU. Critics praised its direction, writing, acting (particularly that of Boseman, Jordan, and Wright), costume design, production values, and soundtrack, but some criticized the computer-generated visual effects. Many critics considered the film to be one of the best in the MCU, and it was also noted for its cultural significance. Organizations such as the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named Black Panther as one of the top ten films of 2018. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide and broke numerous box office records, becoming the highest-grossing film directed by a Black filmmaker, the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time, the third-highest-grossing film in the U.S. and Canada, and the second-highest-grossing film of 2018.

The film was nominated for seven awards at the 91st Academy Awards, winning three, and received numerous other accolades. Black Panther is the first superhero film to receive a Best Picture nomination, and the first MCU film to win several categories. A sequel, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, is scheduled for release on November 11, 2022, while a television series set in Wakanda is in development for Disney+.

Plot

Thousands of years ago, five African tribes war over a meteorite containing the metal vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart-shaped herb" affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther". He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. Over centuries, the Wakandans use vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country. In 1992, Wakanda king T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black-market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions.

In the present day, following T'Chaka's death,[N 1] his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, leader of the Dora Milaje, extract T'Challa's ex-lover Nakia from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die.

When Klaue and his accomplice Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, T'Challa's friend and Okoye's lover W'Kabi urges him to bring Klaue back alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts, and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him.

While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, the latter attacked Zuri and forced T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son to maintain the lie. This boy grew up to be Stevens, a black ops U.S. Navy SEAL who adopted the name "Killmonger". Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity to be N'Jadaka and stating his claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, where he kills Zuri, badly injures T'Challa, and hurls him over a waterfall to his presumed death. Killmonger ingests the heart-shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world.

Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda, and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his nanotech suit, similar to T'Challa's. W'Kabi and his army fight Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down planes carrying vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated; T'Challa shows him the Wakanda sunset and Killmonger dies peacefully.

T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died, to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recovery.

Cast

• Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther:
  The king of the African nation of Wakanda[6][7][8] who gains enhanced strength by ingesting the heart-shaped herb.[9] He ascends to the throne following the death of his father T'Chaka in Captain America: Civil War (2016).[6][10] Boseman called T'Challa an anti-hero who is "very much aware" of his responsibility as the leader of Wakanda.[11][12] Black Panther's suit, which forms around his body, was inspired by a similar design by artist Brian Stelfreeze in Ta-Nehisi Coates' comic book series Black Panther: A Nation Under Our Feet.[13] For his Wakandan accent, Boseman worked with the same dialect coach he had for Message from the King (2016),[11] and worked with Marrese Crump to stay in shape between Civil War and Black Panther.[10] To prepare for the role, Boseman visited South Africa twice; examined Shaka Zulu, Patrice Lumumba, speeches from Nelson Mandela, and Fela Kuti songs; talked to a Yoruba Babalawo; trained in Dambe, Capoeira Angola, and Zulu stick fighting; and took a DNA test to better understand his African ancestry.[14] He signed a five-film contract with Marvel.[15] Ashton Tyler plays a young T'Challa.[16]: i 
• Michael B. Jordan as N'Jadaka / Erik "Killmonger" Stevens:
  A U.S. Navy SEAL in black ops who seeks to overthrow his cousin T'Challa,[17][18] with his own opinion on how Wakanda should be ruled.[19] Jordan had wanted to play a villain for "a while",[20] and likened Killmonger and T'Challa's relationship to the X-Men characters Magneto and Professor X.[21] He added that Killmonger is strategic, thoughtful, patient, and "trained to a T".[22] Killmonger's bumpy, ritualistic tribal markings on his chest and torso resemble the scar tattoos of the Mursi and Surma tribes,[23] and consisted of 90 individually sculpted silicone molds that took two-and-a-half hours to apply.[16]: 21  Jordan would have to sit in a sauna for two hours at the end of the day to remove the prosthetics.[24] Killmonger's dreadlocks hairstyle was a modern take on the character's long hair in the comics.[21] To prepare for the role, Jordan studied Malcolm X, Marcus Garvey, Huey P. Newton, Fred Hampton, and Tupac Shakur.[14] He also cited Heath Ledger's portrayal of the Joker in The Dark Knight (2008) as an influence.[25] Corey Calliet, who had previously worked with Jordan on Creed (2015), served as his trainer.[26] Seth Carr plays a young Stevens.[16]: i 
• Lupita Nyong'o as Nakia:
  T'Challa's former lover and a War Dog, an undercover spy for Wakanda, from the River Tribe.[10][19][27] Nyong'o called Nakia a "departure" from her comic counterpart.[19] She begins the film fighting for enslaved women in Nigeria. Nyong'o trained in judo, jujitsu, silat, and Filipino martial arts.[10]
• Danai Gurira as Okoye:
  An "extremely proud" Wakandan traditionalist from the Border Tribe who is the head of the Dora Milaje, Wakanda's all-female special forces and T'Challa's bodyguards.[28][29][30] Director Ryan Coogler cast Gurira based on her performance in Mother of George (2013), rather than her popular role of Michonne in the television series The Walking Dead, which Coogler had not seen. Gurira said that the fighting skills she learned playing Michonne complemented the skills of Okoye,[31] but noted that the Dora Milaje are a secret service, which covers intel as well as fighting. She explained that though the character is stoic, "she also has an unexpected sense of humor. She has a heart, but for her country and for her people."[30] Gurira's head was re-shaved every day to have her head tattoos applied, which took two-and-a-half to three-and-a-half hours.[24]
• Martin Freeman as Everett K. Ross:
  A member of the Central Intelligence Agency[32][33] whom Freeman described as having an "uneasy peace" with T'Challa. He added that the character goes on an "enlightening journey to Wakanda" in the film.[32] Freeman and the filmmakers sought to depict Ross as a capable agent rather than just comic relief as he is in the comics.[10][34]
• Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi: A confidant to T'Challa and his best friend who is the head of security for the Border Tribe, serving as the first line of defense for Wakanda.[19][35]
• Letitia Wright as Shuri:
  T'Challa's 16-year-old sister who designs new technology for the country.[10][36] Wright described Shuri as innovative of spirit and mind, wanting to take Wakanda to "a new place", and felt she was a good role model for young Black girls.[36] Executive producer Nate Moore called Shuri the smartest person in the world, even more so than Tony Stark.[10]
• Winston Duke as M'Baku:
  A powerful, ruthless warrior who is the leader of Wakanda's mountain tribe, the Jabari, who protest T'Challa being the new king.[37] Duke described the Jabari as people who "strongly believe that to move forward, you have to have a strong adherence and respect for the past. So they have a deep moral conscience."[38] Character elements from Christopher Priest's 1998–2003 Black Panther series were adapted for M'Baku's portrayal in the film.[37] M'Baku is not referred to in the film by his comics alter ego "Man-Ape", since Marvel felt there were "a lot of racial implications that don't sit well" in having a Black character dress up as an ape. This aspect of the character was instead reworked to have the Jabari tribe worship the gorilla gods, with M'Baku still wearing elements of fur on his arms and legs and a chest-plate that hints at the gorilla. Moore continued, "Man-Ape is a problematic character for a lot of reasons, but the idea behind Man-Ape we thought was really fascinating ... It's a line I think we're walking, and hopefully walking successfully."[37] To further differentiate the Jabari, Duke spoke a version of the Nigerian Igbo language rather than the Xhosa language spoken by other Wakandans.[16]: 23 
• Angela Bassett as Ramonda:
  T'Challa and Shuri's mother, the Queen Mother of Wakanda.[39] Ramonda serves as an adviser to T'Challa for when he would otherwise have turned to his father.[19] Bassett wore a silver, waist-length wig for the role that was made from 120 pieces of hair hand-rolled into dreadlocks.[16]: 22  Calliet also served as Bassett's trainer before and during filming, creating high-intensity interval training circuits and helping to craft her diet.[26]
• Forest Whitaker as Zuri:
  An elder statesman of Wakanda and the keeper of the heart-shaped herb.[19][35] Coogler called Zuri a religious and spiritual figure, referencing the spirituality of Wakanda from the comics, and compared him to Obi-Wan Kenobi from the Star Wars series. Zuri is also a "major tie back" to T'Chaka for T'Challa.[40] Denzel Whitaker, who is not related to Forest, plays a young Zuri.[18]
• Andy Serkis as Ulysses Klaue:
  A South African black-market arms dealer, smuggler and gangster,[10][41] who is allied with Killmonger.[13][19] Klaue uses a segment of advanced Wakandan mining equipment as a sonic disruptor arm-cannon that serves to replace his left arm, which was lost in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015).[42] Boseman described Klaue as a threat to Wakanda, one of the few outsiders to enter the country, and someone with access to vibranium. He compared the character to Osama bin Laden.[43] Serkis added that in addition to his desire for vibranium, Klaue is motivated by a "personal" vendetta against T'Challa, and "to expose what he thinks is the hypocrisy of Wakanda".[44]

Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War.[35][45] Kani's son Atandwa Kani portrays a young T'Chaka,[18] and Sterling K. Brown plays his brother N'Jobu, who is Killmonger's father.[18][46] Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe,[16]: i [47] Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe,[16]: i [48] Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe.[16]: i  Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje.[49][50] Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams-Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson also play Doras.[16]: i  Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson,[51] but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage.[16]: i [52][53] Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I.,[54] Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo as a patron in the South Korean casino,[18][55] and Sebastian Stan makes an uncredited appearance in the post-credits scene reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.[56]

Production

Development

In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther,[57] and began work on it by that August.[58] Snipes felt that Africa had been portrayed poorly in Hollywood films previously, and that this film could highlight the majesty of the continent due to the title character being noble and "the antithesis of [African] stereotypes".[59] The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man (1993),[60] and a month later he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well.[61] In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther,[62] and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March;[63] it entered early development by May.[64] Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton.[59] When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project.[65] Snipes said that one of the issues with the project's development was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought the film was about the Black Panther Party.[59]

We've yet to have a major Black comic book hero on the screen. Especially the Black Panther, which is such a rich, interesting life. It's a dream come true to originate something [like] that.

–Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther[61]

In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics' film slate,[66] and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics, to work on it;[67][59] Quesada and Palmiotti have both denied this.[59] That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold.[68] A year later, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film,[69] while Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel in May 2000 to co-produce, finance, and distribute the film.[70] In March 2002, Snipes planned to make the film or Blade 3 (2004) over the next year.[71] In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer stated that he felt Snipes starring as Black Panther in addition to Marvel's Blade "might be overkill".[72]

In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of ten films being developed by the new Marvel Studios.[73] Marvel Studios received financing to produce the slate of ten films to be distributed by Paramount Pictures.[74] In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon,[75] and Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige reiterated in February 2007 that Black Panther was in development.[76] By that July, Singleton had been approached to direct the film.[77] Two months earlier, Fantastic Four (2005) director Tim Story expressed his interest in casting Djimon Hounsou as Black Panther if he were to direct another Fantastic Four film after Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007),[78] but the third Fantastic Four film helmed by Story went unproduced.[79] In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser-known properties, including Black Panther;[80] Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, was overseeing the development of Black Panther specifically.[81] Snipes' involvement stalled at this time, as he was convicted of failing to file a tax return, serving his sentence from June 2010 to April 2013.[82] In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige.[83] By October 2013, the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther's home nation Wakanda, was introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe;[84] Marvel had considered showing Wakanda itself as early as Iron Man 2 (2010), but were waiting until they had "a full idea" of how to depict it.[10]

In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast as T'Challa / Black Panther.[7][8] Boseman did not audition for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel,[85] and earned $2 million for appearing in the film.[86] The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016).[8] Snipes gave his support for the project, despite no longer being involved.[59] Feige said that Marvel was considering minority writers and directors for the film, but would prioritize "the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I'm not going to say for sure that we're going to hire from any one demographic". He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin.[87] In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase",[88] and the next month Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018.[89] Also in February, Feige stated that casting for the film was underway, and added that he was set to meet with directors about the film following the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) at the end of April.[90]

By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to work on either Black Panther or Captain Marvel (2019) as director.[91] In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with several directors, including DuVernay, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid- to late 2015.[92] By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film,[93] explaining that she had been drawn to the cultural importance of depicting a Black hero to the whole world, but disagreed with Marvel on the story and did not want to compromise her vision.[93][94] By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered as directors for the film,[95][96] though negotiations with Coogler had cooled,[96] and Gray had chosen to direct The Fate of the Furious (2017) instead.[97] Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay,[98] and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018.[99] By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed (2015).[96]

Pre-production

Coogler was confirmed as director in January 2016,[100] and said that the film was his "most personal movie to date" in part because he grew up reading comics,[101][102] adding, "I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I'm this passionate about again."[102][103] After being "wooed" by Feige for months, Coogler agreed to direct the film if he could bring collaborators from his previous films to differentiate the film from other MCU films that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in-house people". This included Fruitvale Station (2013) cinematographer Rachel Morrison,[104] as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed.[104][105] Coogler felt Black Panther would be unique while still fitting within the MCU's overall narrative.[101]

What's so great about Panther is he's a superhero who ... [is] a leader in his country. It just so happens that the country is a warrior-based nation where the leaders have to be warriors, as well, so sometimes he has to go fight.

–Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther[106]

In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the beginning of 2017.[107] He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African-American cast":[108][109] Lupita Nyong'o soon entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest,[27] and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed.[17] Nate Moore, serving as a producer on the film by the end of May, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa" as well.[81]

At San Diego Comic-Con 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017.[28][29] Additional casting occurred from September 2016 until the start of filming, with Winston Duke cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul-Mateen II had also tested for;[110] Forest Whitaker as Zuri; Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi;[35] Angela Bassett as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda;[39] Sterling K. Brown as N'Jobu;[46] and Letitia Wright in an unspecified role.[111] Florence Kasumba was revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War.[35] Amandla Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, was considered for a role in the film but was not comfortable taking the place of a dark-skinned actor, and described her decision to pass on the role as "really challenging".[112] By January 2017, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California-based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler growing up in that area.[113]

Writing

The production team was inspired by Ta-Nehisi Coates' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the same time as they were working on the film. Of particular inspiration was Coates' poetic dialogue, Brian Stelfreeze's art, and "some of the questions that it's asking".[106] The film was also inspired by the comic runs of Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics based on what worked for the film's story.[38] The ceremonial betrothal aspect of the Dora Milaje was not adapted from the comics for the film.[10] Coogler had hoped to include Spider-Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process because of a scene in Priest's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven, but the rights to the character were not available due to Sony Pictures owning all rights to Spider-Man characters.[114] Donald Glover and his brother Stephen made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri.[115] Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda to explore "what it means to be African and African-American in the world a bit more", and hoped these could be revisited in a later film, particularly a "super cool" sequence that was storyboarded before being cut.[116]

Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure" that focuses on family and T'Challa learning to be king,[108] with Civil War laying the groundwork for T'Challa's morality and establishing the geopolitical landscape that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda.[117] Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy", and that the latter would avoid the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) and Ant-Man (2015).[10] He also said the film would be a cross between The Godfather (1972) and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage".[19] Coogler was influenced by 1970s films such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. He also watched the film A Prophet (2009) for inspiration.[118] Feige called the film's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas", with Boseman indicating there were parallels to "pull from" in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama, though Feige added that "these are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics."[43] Moore said the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films, but it does affect the wider MCU moving forward,[10] with Feige stating the film was "a very important" link to Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019).[108][119] Civil War did introduce the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language, which Boseman was taught by John Kani, who portrays T'Challa's father, King T'Chaka.[120] Additional actors portraying Wakandans in Black Panther learned the language,[121] with Coogler making the use of the language "a priority... as much as possible". Coogler tried to incorporate Xhosa "in natural and authentic situations", such as when multiple Wakandans were speaking in the presence of nonnatives and wanted to say something they would not understand. John Kani's son Atandwa served as a dialect coach on the film along with his father.[122]

Design

Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a Black superhero "at a time when African-Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization". It was important to root the film in the actual cultures of Africa, with the filmmakers consulting with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in,[123] rooting the film "in reality first and then build[ing] out from there".[6] Coogler's vision for Wakanda was inspired by the southern African country Lesotho, a country which has historically been "an enclave, able to protect its independence because of its terrain" and was only lightly colonized by the British;[124][125] the country's traditional blankets are also featured in the film.[124] Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real-life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo.[126] He wanted Wakanda to feel like a full country with multiple distinct tribes,[37] and created a project bible that detailed each Wakandan tribe to guide the design process. Special care was taken to create a futuristic look that was not alien,[10] as some of Jack Kirby's original comic designs appeared.[127]

Sets

Beachler wanted to honor the comic designs, but fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia,[128] as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid,[10] and the pre-colonization architecture of the historic Mali Empire and the city of Timbuktu.[129] Moore described this approach of taking inspiration from many different sources as a love letter to Africa.[10] Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to advance the technology naturally rather than if Wakanda had been colonized.[128] Circular motifs, signifying the transmission of energy, were an important theme throughout the film. Older locations depicted in the film, such as Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, were juxtaposed with the more modern Afro-punk style of the Golden City, the capital.[10] Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda's skyscrapers, inspired by the appearance of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa.[128]

Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a sun symbol found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow.[10] Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language on an old Nigerian language. She consulted with mining and metallurgy experts for the vibranium technology,[16]: 15  including for the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand-based technology. Beachler wanted futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, such as the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.[10]

The majority of Beachler's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a six-foot-high (1.8 m) pool, and then 30-foot-high (9.1 m) cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand-sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built-in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m3) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. The pool was filled using six large pumps, so as to create a waterfall above the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set was completed in four months, and was used for two weeks of filming.[16]: 16 

Costumes

The Maasai people of Kenya (top) inspired about 80% of the design of the Dora Milaje, Wakanda's all-female special forces (bottom).[24]

Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs.[130][131] She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent, and American fashion designer Donna Karan.[131] Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to Carter for Angela Bassett's costumes.[10]

The Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans that would be passed down from mother to daughter. Carter wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits" look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take actors' stunt work into consideration.[10] Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people and denote stature. As such, General Okoye has gold bands and rings while the other Dora Milaje wear silver.[24]

The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots.[10] Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri; blue with wood for the Border Tribe; black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace;[10][24] plums and purples for the Merchant Tribe in reference to the Tuareg; and ochre for the Mining Tribe inspired by the Himba.[24] Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot. The Wakandans wear "normal" clothes outside of the country, with the colors of their costumes kept consistent.[10] Overall, Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army" of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more.[131]

Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current-day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the actors' hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists", and when necessary, extensions and wigs. As with Carter, Friend designed each tribe to have their own identifiable aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having hair styled with "very straight, clean lines" and war-paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors.[24]

Filming

Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017,[132] at EUE/Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area,[133][134] under the working title Motherland.[135][136] Filming also took place at Pinewood Atlanta Studios,[137] and in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building.[133][138] Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther after working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station,[139] first watched all of the other MCU films to understand the established "language". She wanted to "push" that language and feature more contrast in color. Visual effects supervisor Geoff Baumann provided Morrison with before-and-after shots of scenes from Civil War so she could understand what elements are captured on set and what is created digitally.[140] She filmed in 3.4K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses,[141] primarily using a two-camera set-up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I'd experienced before", and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Some sets were completely surrounded by SkyPanels.[139]

Shortly after filming started, Atandwa Kani stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka,[45] while on-set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross.[132] Marvel announced that production was underway on January 26, and confirmed the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, while revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron.[41][142] Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming. Dialect coach Beth McGuire worked to ensure there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents".[16]: 22  Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set.[10] Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.[134]

Additional filming took place in South Korea,[142] with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene that involved 150 cars and over 700 people.[136][143] Coogler and Morrison referenced the car chase sequences from Bullitt (1968), Drive (2011), and The French Connection (1971), taking the best elements from each for Black Panther's sequence.[140] Filming in Busan began on March 17,[144] at the Jagalchi Fish Market.[145] Filming moved to Gwangalli Beach on March 21,[144] with other South Korean filming locations including Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge.[143] The production crew hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming.[144] Filming in the country wrapped on March 27,[143] with additional location shooting also taking place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda.[141][146] John Marzano served as cinematographer for aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda, and South Korea.[141][147] At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film.[148] Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.[105]

Post-production

Editing

Black Panther was edited by Michael Shawver and Debbie Berman, with Shawver spending time on set during filming as well as at an editing suite near the Atlanta production base.[149] Berman joined the film after an initial director's cut had been produced, two weeks after she completed work on Marvel's Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017),[150] because Coogler likes to have both a male and female editing his films.[149] She believed that she was chosen by Marvel because she is South African, and had been expressing interest in Black Panther throughout the editing process for Homecoming after first seeing the character in Civil War.[150] Shawver said that a lot of their time editing was spent discussing how their work was affecting the audience. For instance, Shawver felt that initial versions of the first Warrior Falls fight fell "flat" and used techniques he learned working with Coogler on Creed to have the editing move back-and-forth to mimic the back-and-forth of the fighters. He also felt that adding more reaction shots to the crowd during the fight gave more weight to T'Challa's victory at the end.[151] During work on the final battle, Berman pointed out to Coogler that the female Dora Milaje are rescued by the all-male Jabari tribe, which she felt undermined the focus on female characters leading up to that moment. Coogler agreed, and subsequently added female Jabari fighters to the scene through additional photography, including the first onscreen Jabari fighter in the scene. Berman felt that this was an important change that would not have been made if only men were editing the film.[150]

As first hinted by Coogler in January 2018,[118] the film includes two post-credit scenes: one showing T'Challa address the United Nations; and one featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.[56] The first scene was originally intended to be part of the actual ending of the film, but was moved to during the credits so the film could conclude in Oakland, where it begins. Coogler felt having this symmetry was important.[152] In the scene, T'Challa says "The foolish build barriers, while the wise build bridges." Some felt this was a reference to the political climate of the presidency of Donald Trump, but Coogler stated that the line was added before Trump's election and was simply an African proverb that his wife had found. His intention with the scene was to inspire the audience by making T'Challa seem like a real person in a familiar, real-world environment, similar to how Tony Stark was treated in Iron Man (2008).[153] Coogler was not mandated by Marvel to feature connections to other films, but was interested in addressing the fact that Barnes was in Wakanda (per the end of Civil War) because it would be fun for the audience. He did not feel the character fit in the body of the film, but felt that an end-credits scene was appropriate.[152] Coogler originally pitched a post-credits scene teasing Namor, which would have depicted wet footprints leading to the throne in the Wakandan palace;[154] this did not occur in part because of rights issues with the character. Namor debuts instead in the sequel Black Panther: Wakanda Forever (2022), portrayed by Tenoch Huerta.[155]

Visual effects

Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co.[16]: xii–xx [156] Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor.[16]: xi  Geoffrey Baumann served as visual effects supervisor.[151]

Comparing Black Panther to other MCU films, Baumann noted that the visual effects department often have free rein when creating otherworldly science fiction designs, but had to be more specific with this film due to the need to be authentic to African culture and geography. For the Warrior Falls environment, the amphitheater-like cliff walls had to be populated with digital spectators that could not simply be copy-and-pasted around the set due to the precise costume designs created by Carter for each tribe and character. Instead, the visual effects department had to work with the costumers to individually model each digital extra for the sequence. Additionally, visual effects were also used to adjust the opening sequence after test audiences were confusing the characters of T'Chaka and T'Challa, both dressed as the Black Panther. Artists digitally added some grey to T'Chaka's beard and gold trimmings to his suit to help differentiate the characters.[151]

ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. ILM VFX supervisor Craig Hammack compared this work to his time on Tomorrowland (2015), but noted the additional challenge of not just building a futuristic city, but also one that was culturally appropriate. He explained that African culture has a "certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city," which would typically use much steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney and The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala, but also had to "depart from a strict understanding of physics and go into a movie cheat world" at times to produce the desired look. Hammack was also inspired by the architecture of Uganda, where he spent time while aerial footage for the film was being shot. 60,000 individual buildings were designed and modeled for the city, which Hammack said was the first thing ILM began work on and also the last thing they were doing when the film was completed. Other things that ILM worked on during the production included set extensions and blue-screen replacements for interior sets, and the first rhinoceros shown in the film. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM replaced the basic set that was used with a full CG environment including an acacia tree and animated panthers. The sky was based on the Northern Lights, with this first designed for nighttime scenes before being replicated for daytime scenes in which the animators had to work hard to keep the effects visible. ILM also added additional sand for the burial sequences so Boseman could breathe during filming, and additional flames when Killmonger burns the heart-shaped herb.[141]

Method Studios created many of the natural environments of Wakanda. The company built a 3,600 km2 (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film, which was based on multiple landscapes from across Africa. Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther's and Killmonger's digital suits, including developing the look of the nanotechnology they use. They created many of the film's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons, with some of those digital creatures being rhinoceroses for the final battle, a sequence that Method did the majority of the work for. Because these rhinoceroses did not have to be seen on screen with the one designed by ILM, only basic structures, scale, and details of the character models had to be shared between the two companies. Much of the work for the final fight included crowd simulation, with Method working alongside the stunt coordinators in motion capture sessions to give each fighter a unique style. In addition to randomizing the height and weight of each digital fighter, the models had to incorporate specific design elements from the costumers. Method also worked on the vibranium mine and Shuri's laboratory, including animating the gadgets seen in the latter.[141]

Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the cars featured in the sequence based on CAD models and on-set reference. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment these moments. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis' left arm for the London museum heist sequence.[157] Several companies worked on the vibranium sand effects used in Wakandan technology, including ILM for the beginning of the film.[141] Perception spent 18 months researching real-world technologies, phenomena, and visual themes to aid them in their work on the film. Their designs for the vibranium sand were based on research being done with ultrasonic transducers for the purpose of mid-air haptics and acoustic levitation. They integrated this research into the kimoyo beads worn by Wakandans and as a working interface on the royal talon fighter. Perception also created the traditional displays on the talon fighter and in Shuri's lab. For the talon fighter, the company "experimented with parallax, depth, and volume in the information being displayed, as well as developing a unique color palette to brand the Wakandan tech". In Shuri's lab, Perception adjusted the hues on the wall to match her attire, and for her healing room "proposed that the hexagonal pattern seen on the wall actually reveal itself to be articulating panels" that "pulse and ripple". The company also created the function of Black Panther's suit with nano technology and "layering the suit with different patterns as well as adding 'sub-dermal' luminescent tattoos", the virtual car chase with Shuri and T'Challa, and designed the opening prologue, with the final version created by Storm VFX. Perception also created the main-on-end title sequence.[158]

Music

Main article: Black Panther (soundtrack)

After reading the script, composer Ludwig Göransson decided to go to Africa to do research for the film.[159] He spent a month in Senegal, first traveling around with musician Baaba Maal on his tour,[159][160] and then spending several weeks working with local musicians to form the "base" of his score.[161][162] Göransson was particularly drawn to the talking drum and the tambin, or Fula flute, to use in his character themes,[159][163] along with horns.[162] Nate Moore compared the work Göransson did in defining the sound of the film to the use of music by James Gunn in the Guardians of the Galaxy films,[164] with the composer pushing Marvel out of their comfort zone.[165]

Kendrick Lamar produced the film's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith, after Coogler wanted to include original songs from Lamar in the film because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film".[166][167] The soundtrack features songs that are heard in the film as well as others that are inspired by it, with the other artists featured the majority of "top-billing names" under Top Dawg Entertainment.[167] Göransson collaborated with Lamar and producer Sounwave on the soundtrack.[168] Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars",[166] "King's Dead",[169] and "Pray for Me".[170] Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018,[171] while a soundtrack of Göransson's score was released on February 16.[172] An extended play titled Black Panther: Wakanda Remixed, featuring remixes of five cues from Göransson's score, was released on August 16, 2018. Göransson worked with several other artists to create the remixes.[173]

Marketing

Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film at a press event in April 2017. Kyle Buchanan of Vulture praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and Black cast, saying "Black Panther doesn't look like any of the other Marvel movies ... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in."[105] The screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, which Feige said they did to show off the "highest-class cast we've had" despite editing having not yet begun.[174] A poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals.[175][176] Fans on Twitter felt the poster was poorly photoshopped,[177] and it was compared to a real-life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton.[175] The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of /Film finding it unexpected and refreshing,[178] io9's Charles Pulliam-Moore calling it "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be",[179] and Andrew Husband for Uproxx feeling the single teaser outshone the entire Homecoming marketing campaign.[176] It was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, generating 349,000 mentions (second only to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) teaser received) and "dominated the conversation on social media" over Game 4.[180][177] Per comScore and its PreAct service, the film was the subject of the most new social media conversations for the rest of the week,[181] and the second-most for the week ending June 18, behind Homecoming.[182]

Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con,[183][184] with Coogler, Boseman, and other members of the cast presenting exclusive footage of the film at the latter event, to a standing ovation from the audience.[185] In September, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response.[126] On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider praised the trailer for showing an "unmistakable sense of style" unique to the character,[186] while BamSmackPow's Brendan Day felt the trailer "does everything right".[187] Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of [John] Shaft, the coolness of [Barack] Obama and the hot-headed impulsiveness of Kanye West".[188] A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie-in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther set around the time of Iron Man.[189] The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album and the beginning of ticket sales for the film.[190]

By February 12, Black Panther was the most-tweeted about film of 2018 with more than 5 million tweets globally,[191] and in mid-March it became the most-tweeted-about film ever with 35 million.[192] During New York Fashion Week, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era".[190][193] Marvel Studios formed a partnership with Lexus on the film, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in it.[194] The partnership produced a graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, which was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne, and Chuck Brown;[194][195][196] a concept coupe from Lexus inspired by the character;[196] and a Super Bowl LII commercial featuring Boseman, Gurira and Wright,[197] which had 4.3 million views on social media after its Super Bowl airing, according to RelishMix.[198] Other marketing partners included shoe manufacturer Clarks creating a film-inspired variant of their Originals' Trigenic Evo shoe;[199] PepsiCo and Unilever launching an arts program for young people in urban areas to be mentored by established artists; Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All-Star Game; Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Nyong'o and Wright used at the film's premiere; and Synchrony Financial with Marvel awarded the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler speaking to the school's students.[198]

Overall, Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel.[200] Deadline Hollywood estimated that budget to be $150 million.[3] Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films, said the campaign was about "super-serving" Black audiences while still trying to appeal to all, in order to make the film "feel like a cultural event".[190] Disney and Marvel created a "synergy program" with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC television series Black-ish, Grey's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown-ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives.[198] Marketing outside the United States was "fairly uniform", though in the Middle East the focus was kept on Black Panther in-costume as superhero films "just keep working" there according to Gianluca Chakra of Middle East distributor Front Row. This was the same for Asian territories. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven Chinese cities, along with displays showing Black Panther with other MCU characters. A special trailer created for China had Boseman explain the character's connection to other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement.[201]

Release

Theatrical

Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018.[202] The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje,[203] while Coogler, cast members, and other guests wore African clothing at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire", honoring the African setting of the film.[2][203] Ahead of the premiere screening, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film.[203] Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13,[204] in South Korea on February 14,[205] and the United States on February 16.[99] In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters,[198] with over 3,200 of those in 3D,[206] 404 in IMAX,[198] over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D-Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270-degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries.[206] The film opened in most markets in its first weekend of release including a "cross-nation release" in Africa, a first for a Disney film.[126][146][204] Black Panther was originally scheduled for release on November 3, 2017,[7] before moving to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017).[89] It was then moved to the final February date to accommodate Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018).[99] Black Panther is part of Phase Three of the MCU.[207]

When Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018, it was the first public film viewing after a nearly-30-year-old ban on cinemas was rescinded in December 2017. The premiere took place in a cinema owned by AMC Theatres in the King Abdullah Financial District of Riyadh.[208][209] Disney's regional distributor, Italia Film, said 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance.[210] Black Panther screened there for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26.[209]

Black Panther returned to 250 AMC Theatres in the United States from February 1 until February 7, 2019, for free, with two showings of the film occurring at each theater for the week. The week-long return was in honor of the start of Black History Month and the film winning two Screen Actors Guild Awards and earning an Academy Award Best Picture nomination. Disney also gave a $1.5 million grant to the United Negro College Fund.[211]

Home media

Black Panther was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD on May 15, 2018. The digital and Blu-ray releases included several bonus features: behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, an exclusive look at Ant-Man and the Wasp, and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU.[212] As of November 11, 2018[update], the film's Blu-ray and DVD releases have sold 4.2 million units and grossed $87 million in the United States, making it the best-selling film of 2018.[213] Black Panther was originally made available on Netflix, but was removed in March 2020 after Disney regained license for the film.[214] It was released on Disney+ on March 4, 2020 in the United States and Canada.[215]

On June 19, 2020, TBS, TNT, and truTV aired the film, along with Just Mercy (2019), another film which also starred Jordan, to coincide with the celebrations of Juneteenth and to support social justice against systemic racism in response to the murder of George Floyd.[216] On August 30, 2020, ABC hosted a television special Chadwick Boseman: A Tribute for a King,[217] aired after the film's commercial-free premiere on the same day, to honor Boseman, who died on August 28, 2020 from colon cancer.[218] The special was presented by Robin Roberts, and featured about Boseman's life, career and legacy, as well as tributes served by celebrities, political figures and fans; it also featured other Marvel co-stars, Robert Downey Jr., Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Mark Ruffalo, and Paul Rudd, along with Marvel Studios chief Kevin Feige, and Disney CEO Bob Iger, sharing their experiences on working with Boseman, and the legacy he had left behind.[219] The special released on Disney+ after its television debut.[220]

On November 29, 2020, Marvel changed the studio's production logo animation in the opening of the film to include images of Boseman from the film, as well as his appearances in Captain America: Civil War, Avengers: Infinity War, and Avengers: Endgame. Black Panther concept art and excerpts from the script were also included. This change was done on the Disney+ version of the film, to honor Boseman on what would have been his 44th birthday.[221] Despite being released in IMAX theatres in the 1.90:1 aspect ratio, the home media release only includes the cropped 2.39:1 aspect ratio version that was used for non-IMAX screenings.[222] The IMAX Enhanced version of the film was made available on Disney+ beginning on November 12, 2021.[223]

Reception

Box office

Black Panther grossed $700.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $646.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.347 billion.[4] It became the highest-grossing solo superhero film,[224] the third-highest-grossing film of the MCU and superhero film overall,[225] the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time,[226] and the highest-grossing film by a Black director.[227][228] It is the fifth MCU film and 33rd overall to surpass $1 billion,[229] and the second-highest-grossing film of 2018.[230] Deadline Hollywood calculated the film's net profit as $476.8 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs; box office grosses and home media revenues placed it second on their list of 2018's "Most Valuable Blockbusters".[3]

Pre-sale tickets

The film had the fourth-highest pre-sale tickets sold on Fandango, and became the top pre-seller for a superhero film and for a film released in February as well as the first quarter of a year.[231] The first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales on the site were the largest for a Marvel film.[232] Black Panther also had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema,[233] while out-selling all previous Marvel films at AMC Theatres,[234] and having strong pre-sales at Atom Tickets.[206] Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film, which did not appear to have peaked 10 days before opening as with most films; Black Panther, he said, "feels like it's going to peak the day it opens".[235] Fandango's pre-sales ultimately accounted for 30% of the film's United States and Canada opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango's history.[236]

United States and Canada

Early projections for Black Panther's opening weekend ranged from $80–170 million,[204][237] with rival film studios projecting the total to be as high as $180–200 million;[206] Disney projected the gross to be around $150 million.[204] It ultimately earned $75.8 million on its opening day (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and $242.1 million over the four-day Presidents' Day weekend.[198] This was the best Presidents' Day weekend opening,[238] and the best opening weekend for a Black director and predominantly Black cast.[239] With a total gross of $202 million, the film had the highest February opening weekend, surpassing Deadpool (2016).[240] For AMC Theatres, Black Panther became the highest-grossing film ever at 33 locations,[241] and had the biggest opening weekend for 150 of them. Overall, this was the second-largest opening weekend ever for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film.[242] Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood described the success as "summer box office records during the second month of the year".[198]

The week after its opening weekend was also strong, with a record-setting Tuesday and Thursday earnings,[243][244] becoming the MCU film with the highest first-week gross.[245] It also surpassed $300 million in eight days, becoming the fastest MCU film to do so.[244] In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week, the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film. It was the second-best second weekend ever, and the best second weekend for a Marvel film beating The Avengers ($103 million).[246] Black Panther also became the highest-grossing film released in February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ (2004) ($370.3 million).[247]

Black Panther was the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar (2009),[248] and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since Wayne's World in 1992.[249] The film declined over subsequent weekends, but remained in the top ten through its tenth.[250][251] In its eleventh weekend, the film rose back up at the box office, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend,[226] and the following weekend it earned $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War.[252] Black Panther was in the top ten again in its thirteenth weekend.[253]

In its 25th weekend, Disney increased the film's theater count from 10 to 25 to help the film become the third ever to surpass $700 million.[254][255] Brian Gallagher of IGN felt the film surpassing $700 million was more impressive than Infinity War's $2.045 billion worldwide gross at the time. Gallagher pointed to Black Panther being more consistent each week, never having more than a 50% weekend decrease until the 15th frame while Infinity War dropped 55% in its second weekend, its February release date without any major competition from other films, and the fact it was "a rallying cry for diversity and representation".[255] Black Panther is the highest-grossing film of 2018 and became the third-highest-grossing film of all time,[256] as well as the highest-grossing superhero film.[250][257][258] Its IMAX total of $36 million is the most for any MCU film.[246] In July 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic closing most theaters worldwide and limiting what films played, Black Panther returned to 421 theaters (mostly drive-ins) and grossed $367,000, the second-highest for the weekend behind The Empire Strikes Back's (1980) re-release.[259]

Other territories

Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and earned $184 million,[260][238] opening at number one in most territories (though second in some where Fifty Shades Freed performed better, such as Germany and Italy). It became the top February opening in many countries,[260][261] including in the African market and the Middle East, while taking the top spot across Latin America.[260] IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross, from 272 screens,[242] which included record opening weekends in the format for Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia.[260] In its second weekend, in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most, including across Latin America, while becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7% increase, which resulted in the biggest three-day weekend ever there. Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000) and the IMAX release in Russia ($1.7 million) was a February record for that country.[262]

In its third weekend, the film remained number one across many of its 56 territories, including the entire Latin America region,[263] while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall.[263][264] In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million) with the fourth-highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the country. This included the biggest opening day and opening weekend ($7.3 million) of March for IMAX in China. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America region (except Argentina) for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.[265] Black Panther was the top film in South Africa for seven weeks,[266] where it became the highest-grossing film ever.[267] It also became the highest-grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, and the southern Africa region,[263][268] and the highest-grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands.[224] As of April 8, 2018[update], the film's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million).[269] It became the fifth-highest-grossing MCU film of all time in other territories.[267]

Critical response

The performances of Chadwick Boseman, Michael B. Jordan, and Letitia Wright (L to R) received widespread critical acclaim.[270]

The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 96%, with an average score of 8.3/10, based on 529 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU's most absorbing stories—and introducing some of its most fully realized characters."[271] As of February 18, 2018[update], it was the best-reviewed live-action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight (2008) and Iron Man (both 94%).[272] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 88 out of 100 based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[273] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, the second live-action superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel's The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by comScore's PostTrak service gave the film a 95% positive score and an 88% "definite recommend", with a third of people planning to see the film again.[198][246] RelishMix reported that the use of Twitter hashtags for #BlackPanther and tagging of the film's Twitter account from those leaving the theater was the highest for a film's opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day (100,000 posts for a film is average).[198] Black Panther was listed on many critics' top ten lists as a top film of 2018.[274]

Critics called Black Panther one of the best standalone Marvel films,[275] one of the best Marvel origin films,[276] one of the best superhero films of the century,[277] and a "refreshing answer to the increasingly stale world of superhero cinema".[278] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it unlike any other Marvel film, "an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it".[279] Jamelle Bouie put the film in the same league as Superman (1978), Spider-Man 2 (2004), and The Dark Knight, superhero films that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects". Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp [but] Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did."[280] The cast was acclaimed.[277][276] Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter stated Boseman "certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players" including Jordan, Nyong'o, and Wright.[281]

The writing was praised for its handling of themes of Africans. Manohla Dargis honored Black Panther as an "emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present" due to its focus on Black imagination, creation, and liberation.[282] At the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan praised the themes of the film and their exploration of what wealthy countries owe to the poor and oppressed, and noted that the film "draws energy from Coogler's sense of excitement at all he's attempting", saying that the film was worth seeing twice which he felt was rare for a modern superhero film.[283] Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, said audiences should watch the film if they appreciate "finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz-bang action sequences and good humor".[277] Brian Truitt of USA Today stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda".[276]

Natasha Alford of The Grio called the film a "movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one", and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are".[284] Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds called the film a masterpiece that is "afro-futuristic and Blackity-black as hell. It's everything I've ever desired in a live-action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more."[285] Bouie said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises."[280] Devindra Hardawar at Engadget was critical of the CGI, notably the digital actors used, calling them "weightless, ugly and, worst of all, incredibly distracting". Hardawar felt two "particularly disappointing" CGI shots were when T'Challa flips over a car during the Korea chase, and when T'Challa and Killmonger punch each other as they fall within the vibranium mines.[278]

Analysis

Cultural importance

Many have wondered why Black Panther means so much to the Black community and why schools, churches and organizations have come to the theaters with so much excitement. The answer is that the movie brings a moment of positivity to a group of people often not the centerpiece of Hollywood movies... [Racial and ethnic socialization] helps to strengthen identity and helps reduce the likelihood on internalizing negative stereotypes about one's ethnic group.

—Erlanger Turner, assistant professor of Psychology at the University of Houston–Downtown[286]

Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther would "prove to Hollywood that African-American narratives have the power to generate profits from all audiences", and described it as a resistance to "a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white-nativist movement... Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on Black life and tradition."[287] Discussing the film as a defining moment for Black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier Black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its Blackness". He felt Wakanda would become a "promised land" for future generations of Black Americans, "untroubled by the criminal horrors of our [current] American existence."[288] Historian Nathan D. B. Connolly said Black Panther was "a powerful fictional analogy for real-life struggles" that taps into a "500-year history of African-descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy." Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation's A Raisin in the Sun (1961).[289] Writer and activist Shaun King found the film to be a cultural moment in American Black history similar to Rosa Parks' Montgomery bus boycott, Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, or Barack Obama being elected president.[290]

By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of Black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution" allowing "white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it". Wilt found the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero" for shooting down the Wakandan ships to be the film's way of approving the vanquishing of armed resistance against oppression. Wilt also felt that Killmonger was given the "most hideous traits imaginable [making] the only major African-American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence".[291] Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country wrote that Killmonger's role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism".[292] Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, with the only Islamic characters being a Boko Haram-based group that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.[293]

Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young Black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave (2012) sparked girls' interest in archery.[126] Broadnax felt many people who generally do not watch comic book films would go to Black Panther since "they're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just haven't been able to see before",[294] especially since the film avoided the plight typically depicted in films about the Black experience.[288] She also stated that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls.[294]

Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, called the film "critically important" and "a gate-opener opportunity for other Black-centered projects".[294] In 2022, producer and actress Viola Davis credited the film for helping her film The Woman King (2022) get made.[295] Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would "make a huge impact on children's spirits" by offering positive role models.[296] Scholar Marlene D. Allen felt the saying "if you can see it, you can be it" applied to the film, especially with the female characters in the film. Allen felt the women of Wakanda "are the very definition of 'Black Girl Magic', a term coined by CaShawn Thompson in 2013 'to celebrate the beauty, power, and resilience of Black women.'"[297] Tre Johnson of Rolling Stone felt that "after decades of trying to nail the modern Black superhero, we may finally be getting what we've asked for", with Johnson saying Black Panther felt different from the Blaxploitation films of the 1970s and the "Blaxploitation-lite" attempts at Black superhero films in the 1990s and 2000s because it was "respectable, imaginative and powerful", setting "a new direction" for the depiction of Black superheroes.[188] In the film's opening weekend, 37% of audiences in the United States were African-American, according to PostTrak, compared to 35% Caucasian, 18% Hispanic, and 5% Asian.[198] This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever (African-Americans generally make up 15% of audiences for superhero films).[190] In its second weekend, demographics were 37% Caucasian, 33% African American, 18% Hispanic and 7% Asian.[246]

In early January 2018, philanthropist Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe drive to raise money for children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem to see Black Panther.[298] Joseph said the film was a "rare opportunity" for underserved children of color to see "a Black major ... comic book character" brought to film.[296] Joseph promoted the drive with Boseman on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The drive went on to raise over $45,000,[299] exceeding its goal,[298] with the money also funding other programs for children in Harlem.[299] Joseph also started the "Black Panther Challenge" where he encouraged other people to create similar drives for their communities.[298] GoFundMe made a centralized site for those wishing to start a drive for the challenge.[300] 400 additional drives were started around the world, and the overall drive became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event, raising over $400,000.[198] Many celebrities offered their support and contributions to the drives,[298] including Ellen DeGeneres, Snoop Dogg, Chelsea Clinton, J. J. Abrams,[299] Octavia Spencer,[301] and British actress Jade Anouka.[299]

In June 2018, the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of African American History and Culture announced they had acquired several items from the film for their collection, including Boseman's Black Panther costume and a shooting script for the film signed by Coogler, Feige, Moore, and Cole. The museum said that the collection provides a "fuller story of Black culture and identity" by showing the progression of Black Americans in film, "an industry that [once] regulated them to flat, one-dimensional and marginalized figures."[302] In conjunction with The Hollywood Reporter's Women in Entertainment Mentorship Program, and its partner the Greater Los Angeles chapter of Big Brothers Big Sisters, Walt Disney Studios created "The Black Panther Scholarship", worth US$250,000 to Loyola Marymount University. Boseman, Nyong'o, and Gurira presented the scholarship to its first recipient at The Hollywood Reporter's 2018 Women in Entertainment event in early December 2018.[303]

African and African-American representation

Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as addressing "serious political issues concerning Africa's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves", with Wakandans portrayed as suspicious towards outsiders. He concluded that while the country is fictional, the politics "are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa's politics".[304] Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow! said the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger represents the collision of "what it means to be African" and "what Africa means to Afro-minorities today". In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy," concluding that Killmonger wants to use Wakanda's resources to become a colonizer of the West while "Wakanda's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Erik Killmonger".[305] Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance". He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself". Cobb added that Black Panther is political in a way previous MCU films were not because in those "we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality [while this film is set in] in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the 'dark continent' and set about plundering its people and its resources."[306] Writing for The Atlantic, Adam Serwer argued against the assertion that Erik Killmonger was a representation for Black liberation, positing instead that he represented imperialism. He felt that this was emphasized through his actions, as Killmonger's attempts to take over several of the world's major cities notably include Hong Kong. Since China does not have a white Western hegemony in need of overthrowing, Killmonger's desire to conquer China was purely for the sake of power. Ultimately, he argues that "Black Panther does not render a verdict that violence is an unacceptable tool of Black liberation—to the contrary, that is precisely how Wakanda is liberated. It renders a verdict on imperialism as a tool of Black liberation, to say that the master's tools cannot dismantle the master's house."[307]

Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa", which—rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology"—offers "the same destructive myths". Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed, still essentially a European creation, as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite that despite its advanced technical abilities does not have a means of succession beyond lethal combat. The Wakandans "still cleanly fit into the Western molds [of] a dark people in a dark continent" according to Gathara, and they "remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a 'returning' American can basically stroll in and take over ... [The film] should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its 'redemptive counter-mythology' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries."[308] Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, called the film racist because it depicts Black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, as still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard" in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by understanding how Killmonger was affected by American racism and T'Chaka's "cruelty", and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president [Donald Trump] who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about Black empowerment where the only redeemed Blacks are African nobles [who] safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a Black American".[309]

Accolades

Main article: List of accolades received by Black Panther (film)

At the 91st Academy Awards, Black Panther received nominations for Best Picture, Best Original Song, Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing; and won Best Costume Design, Best Original Score, and Best Production Design.[310] The film's other nominations include a British Academy Film Award (which it won),[311] twelve Critics' Choice Movie Awards (winning three),[312] and three Golden Globe Awards.[313] Its nominations for the Academy Award for Best Picture and Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama were firsts for a superhero film,[314][315] while its Academy Award wins were the first for Marvel Studios and an MCU film.[316] Black Panther was named one of the ten best films of 2018 by the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute.[317][318] The film was the top entertainment Google search of 2018 along with the sixth overall.[319]

Oscars campaign

By late August 2018, Disney hired Academy Award campaign strategist Cynthia Swartz to create a nomination campaign on behalf of the film for the 91st Academy Awards, with Feige and Marvel Studios said to have given the film a noteworthy budget for the awards season, an obligation which Marvel didn't consider for previous films. The campaign was focused to highlight "the film's creative accomplishments and the global impact it made" in the hopes of receiving a Best Picture nomination; the campaign was not altered with the announcement of the new Best Popular Film award, which appeared to be "designed to reward blockbusters like Black Panther" in the event they did not receive a Best Picture nomination.[320] The Best Popular Film award was ultimately not implemented for the 91st Academy Awards, in order for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to "examine and seek additional input regarding" it.[321][322] Glenn Whipp of the Los Angeles Times felt the "blueprint" for the film's Best Picture campaign was to "communicate to Oscar voters that this is an auteur-driven superhero movie possessing a deep significance both to its director and to people historically underrepresented in Hollywood films." Another Oscar campaign consultant felt reminding the Oscar voters Black Panther "wasn't just a movie, it was a phenomenon" would help the film earn a nomination. Another said voters "want to reward good movies and they also want to reward movies that say something significant and make the industry look good." The consultants also felt if Black Panther could earn multiple nominations in the craft award categories, it would bolster its chances for a Best Picture nomination; Whipp believed that Morrison, Beachler, Carter, Friend and Harlow, and Lamar all had the possibility to be nominated for Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup and Hairstyling, and Best Original Song, respectively.[320] A few weeks later, Disney revealed their For Your Consideration list, with consideration in all Awards of Merit categories, aside from Best Actress and categories it was not eligible for, such as those for animation, short films, and documentaries.[323][324]

Black Panther was ultimately nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Costume Design, Best Production Design, Best Original Score, Best Original Song (for "All the Stars"), Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing.[325] The film was the first superhero film ever to be nominated for Best Picture,[314] while Beachler's nomination for Best Production Design was the first for an African American.[326] Feige called the Best Picture nomination "the highest form of recognition from our peers".[314] On her nomination, Beachler said she felt "a certain responsibility. It means breaking down walls ... for young women of color and boys and girls of color to see that this is not impossible."[326]

Future

Sequel

Main article: Black Panther: Wakanda Forever

A sequel, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, is scheduled to be released on November 11, 2022,[327] with Coogler returning to write and direct.[328] Nyong'o,[329] Gurira,[330] Freeman,[331] Wright,[332] Duke, and Bassett reprise their roles, while Tenoch Huerta is set to appear as Namor.[329] In August 2020, Boseman died from colon cancer, surprising Coogler, Feige, and other executives at Marvel Studios, who had been unaware of Boseman's illness.[333][334] Feige said in December 2020 that the role of T'Challa would not be recast,[335] with Shuri expected to have a more prominent role in the sequel.[329]

Untitled Wakanda series

Further information: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four § Untitled Wakanda series

In February 2021, a drama series set in Wakanda was revealed to be in development from Coogler for Disney+, as part of the larger overall deal between Coogler's production company Proximity Media and Walt Disney Television.[336] By May 2021, Gurira had signed a deal to reprise her role as Okoye in the series, which was said to be an origin spin-off for the character.[337][338]

See also

• 
  Film portal

• "What If... T'Challa Became a Star-Lord?" and "What If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?", episodes of the MCU television series What If...? that reimagine some events of this film
• List of Afrofuturist films
• List of black films of the 2010s

Notes

1. ^ As depicted in Captain America: Civil War (2016).[5]

References

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External links

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Page 2

Film that gives an illusion of three-dimensional depth

This article is about motion pictures that give an illusion of depth. For 2D motion pictures created using 3D modeling software, see Computer-generated imagery. For motion pictures created using stereophotogrammetry, see Volumetric video.

3D films are motion pictures made to give an illusion of three-dimensional solidity, usually with the help of special glasses worn by viewers. They have existed in some form since 1915, but had been largely relegated to a niche in the motion picture industry because of the costly hardware and processes required to produce and display a 3D film, and the lack of a standardized format for all segments of the entertainment business. Nonetheless, 3D films were prominently featured in the 1950s in American cinema, and later experienced a worldwide resurgence in the 1980s and 1990s driven by IMAX high-end theaters and Disney-themed venues. 3D films became increasingly successful throughout the 2000s, peaking with the success of 3D presentations of Avatar in December 2009, after which 3D films again decreased in popularity.[1] Certain directors have also taken more experimental approaches to 3D filmmaking, most notably celebrated auteur Jean-Luc Godard in his film Goodbye to Language.

History

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Before film

The basic components of 3D film were introduced separately between 1833 and 1839. Stroboscopic animation was developed by Joseph Plateau in 1832 and published in 1833 in the form of a stroboscopic disc,[2] which he later called the fantascope and became better known as the phénakisticope. Around the very same time (1832/1833), Charles Wheatstone developed the stereoscope, but he didn't really make it public before June 1838. The first practical forms of photography were introduced in January 1839 by Louis Daguerre and Henry Fox Talbot. A combination of these elements into animated stereoscopic photography may have been conceived early on, but for decades it did not become possible to capture motion in real-time photographic recordings due to the long exposure times necessary for the light-sensitive emulsions that were used.

Charles Wheatstone got inventor Henry Fox Talbot to produce some calotype pairs for the stereoscope and received the first results in October 1840. Only a few more experimental stereoscopic photographs were made before David Brewster introduced his stereoscope with lenses in 1849. Wheatstone also approached Joseph Plateau with the suggestion to combine the stereoscope with stereoscopic photography. In 1849, Plateau published about this concept in an article about several improvements made to his fantascope and suggested a stop motion technique that would involve a series of photographs of purpose-made plaster statuettes in different poses.[3] The idea reached Jules Duboscq, an instrument maker who already marketed Plateau's Fantascope as well as the stereoscopes of Wheatstone and Brewster. In November 1852, Duboscq added the concept of his "Stéréoscope-fantascope, ou Bïoscope" to his stereoscope patent. Production of images proved very difficult, since the photographic sequence had to be carefully constructed from separate still images. The bioscope was no success and the only extant disc, without apparatus, is found in the Joseph Plateau collection of the University of Ghent. The disc contains 12 albumen image pairs of a machine in motion.[4]

Most of the other early attempts to create motion pictures also aimed to include the stereoscopic effect.

In November 1851, Antoine Claudet claimed to have created a stereoscope that showed people in motion.[5] The device initially only showed two phases, but during the next two years, Claudet worked on a camera that would record stereoscopic pairs for four different poses (patented in 1853).[6] Claudet found that the stereoscopic effect didn't work properly in this device, but believed the illusion of motion was successful.[7]

Johann Nepomuk Czermak published an article about his Stereophoroskop. His first idea to create animated images in 3D involved sticking pins in a stroboscopic disc in a sequence that would show the pin moving further into the cardboard and back. He also designed a device that would feed the image pairs from two stroboscopic discs into one lenticular stereoscope and a vertical predecessor of the zoetrope.[8]

On 27 February 1860 Peter Hubert Desvignes received British patent no. 537 for 28 monocular and stereoscopic variations of cylindrical stroboscopic devices. This included a version that used an endless band of pictures running between two spools that was intermittently lit by an electric spark.[9] Desvignes' Mimoscope, received an Honourable Mention "for ingenuity of construction" at the 1862 International Exhibition in London.[10] It could "exhibit drawings, models, single or stereoscopic photographs, so as to animate animal movements, or that of machinery, showing various other illusions."[11] Desvignes "employed models, insects and other objects, instead of pictures, with perfect success." The horizontal slits (like in Czermak's Stereophoroskop) allowed a much improved view, with both eyes, of the opposite pictures.[12]

In 1861 American engineer Coleman Sellers II received US patent No. 35,317 for the kinematoscope, a device that exhibited "stereoscopic pictures as to make them represent objects in motion". In his application he stated: "This has frequently been done with plane pictures but has never been, with stereoscopic pictures". He used three sets of stereoscopic photographs in a sequence with some duplicates to regulate the flow of a simple repetitive motion, but also described a system for very large series of pictures of complicated motion.[13][14]

On 11 August 1877, the Daily Alta newspaper announced a project by Eadward Muybridge and Leland Stanford to produce sequences of photographs of a running horse with 12 stereoscopic cameras. Muybridge had much experience with stereo photography and had already made instantaneous pictures of Stanford's horse Occident running at full speed. He eventually managed to shoot the proposed sequences of running horses in June 1878, with stereoscopic cameras. In 1898, Muybridge claimed that he had soon after placed the pictures in two synchronized zoetropes and placed mirrors as in Wheatstone's stereoscope resulting in "a very satisfactory reproduction of an apparently solid miniature horse trotting, and of another galloping".[15]

Thomas Edison demonstrated his phonograph on 29 November 1877, after previous announcements of the device for recording and replaying sound had been published earlier in the year. An article in Scientific American concluded "It is already possible, by ingenious optical contrivances, to throw stereoscopic photographs of people on screens in full view of an audience. Add the talking phonograph to counterfeit their voices and it would be difficult to carry the illusion of real presence much further". Wordsworth Donisthorpe announced in the 24 January 1878 edition of Nature that he would advance that conception: "By combining the phonograph with the kinesigraph I will undertake not only to produce a talking picture of Mr. Gladstone which, with motionless lips and unchanged expression shall positively recite his latest anti-Turkish speech in his own voice and tone. Not only this, but the life size photograph itself shall move and gesticulate precisely as he did when making the speech, the words and gestures corresponding as in real life."[16] A Dr. Phipson repeated this idea in a French photography magazine, but renamed the device "Kinétiscope" to reflect the viewing purpose rather than the recording option. This was picked up in the United States and discussed in an interview with Edison later in the year.[17] Neither Donisthorpe or Edison's later moving picture results were stereoscopic.

Early patents and tests

In the late 1890s, British film pioneer William Friese-Greene filed a patent for a 3D film process. In his patent, two films were projected side by side on screen. The viewer looked through a stereoscope to converge the two images. Because of the obtrusive mechanics behind this method, theatrical use was not practical.[18]

Frederic Eugene Ives patented his stereo camera rig in 1900. The camera had two lenses coupled together 1+3⁄4 inches (4.45 centimeters) apart.[19]

On June 10, 1915, Edwin S. Porter and William E. Waddell presented tests to an audience at the Astor Theater in New York City.[20] In red-green anaglyph, the audience was presented three reels of tests, which included rural scenes, test shots of Marie Doro, a segment of John Mason playing a number of passages from Jim the Penman (a film released by Famous Players-Lasky that year, but not in 3D), Oriental dancers, and a reel of footage of Niagara Falls.[21] However, according to Adolph Zukor in his 1953 autobiography The Public Is Never Wrong: My 50 Years in the Motion Picture Industry, nothing was produced in this process after these tests.

1909–1915: Alabastra and Kinoplastikon

By 1909 the German film market suffered much from overproduction and too much competition. German film tycoon Oskar Messter had initially gained much financial success with the Tonbild synchronized sound films of his Biophon system since 1903, but the films were losing money by the end of the decade and Messter would stop Tonbild production in 1913. Producers and exhibitors were looking into new film attractions and invested for instance in colorful imagery. The development of stereoscopic cinema seemed a logical step to lure visitors back into the movie theatres.

In 1909, German civil engineer August Engelsmann patented a process that projected filmed performances within a physical decor on an actual stage. Soon after, Messter obtained patents for a very similar process, probably by agreement with Engelsmann, and started marketing it as "Alabastra". Performers were brightly dressed and brightly lit while filmed against a black background, mostly miming their singing or musical skills or dancing to the circa four-minute pre-recorded phonographs. The film recordings would be projected from below, to appear as circa 30 inch figures on a glass pane in front of a small stage, in a setup very similar to the Pepper's ghost illusion that offered a popular stage trick technique since the 1860s. The glass pane was not visible to the audience and the projected figures seemed able to move around freely across the stage in their virtual tangible and lifelike appearance. The brightness of the figures was necessary to avoid see-through spots and made them resemble alabaster sculptures. To adapt to this appearance, several films featured Pierrot or other white clowns, while some films were probably hand-coloured. Although Alabastra was well received by the press, Messter produced few titles, hardly promoted them and abandoned it altogether a few years later. He believed the system to be uneconomical due to its need for special theatres instead of the widely available movie screens, and he didn't like that it seemed only suitable for stage productions and not for "natural" films. Nonetheless, there were numerous imitators in Germany and Messter and Engelsmann still teamed with American swindler Frank J. Goldsoll set up a short-lived variant named "Fantomo" in 1914.[22]

Rather in agreement with Messter or not, Karl Juhasz and Franz Haushofer opened a Kinoplastikon theatre in Vienna in 1911. Their patented system was very similar to Alabaster, but projected life-size figures from the wings of the stage. With much higher ticket prices than standard cinema, it was targeted at middle-class audiences to fill the gap between low-brow films and high-class theatre. Audiences reacted enthusiastically and by 1913 there reportedly were 250 theatres outside Austria, in France, Italy, United Kingdom, Russia and North America. However, the first Kinoplastikon in Paris started in January 1914 and the premiere in New York took place in the Hippodrome in March 1915. In 1913, Walter R. Booth directed 10 films for the U.K. Kinoplastikon, presumably in collaboration with Cecil Hepworth. Theodore Brown, the licensee in the U.K. also patented a variant with front and back projection and reflected decor, and Goldsoll applied for a very similar patent only 10 days later.[22] Further development and exploitation was probably haltered by World War I.

Alabastra and Kinoplastikon were often advertised as stereoscopic and screenless. Although in reality the effect was heavily dependent on glass screen projection and the films were not stereoscopic, the shows seemed truly three-dimensional as the figures were clearly separate from the background and virtually appeared inside the real, three-dimensional stage area without any visible screen.

Eventually, longer (multi-reel) films with story arcs proved to be the way out of the crisis in the movie market and supplanted the previously popular short films that mostly aimed to amuse people with tricks, gags or other brief variety and novelty attractions. Sound film, stereoscopic film and other novel techniques were relatively cumbersome to combine with multiple reels and were abandoned for a while.

Early systems of stereoscopic filmmaking (pre-1952)

The earliest confirmed 3D film shown to an out-of-house audience was The Power of Love, which premiered at the Ambassador Hotel Theater in Los Angeles on 27 September 1922.[23][24][25] The camera rig was a product of the film's producer, Harry K. Fairall, and cinematographer Robert F. Elder.[18] It was filmed dual-strip in black and white, and single strip color anaglyphic release prints were produced using a color film invented and patented by Harry K. Fairall. A single projector could be used to display the movie but anaglyph glasses were used for viewing. The camera system and special color release print film all received U.S Patent No. 1,784,515 on Dec 9, 1930.[26][27] After a preview for exhibitors and press in New York City, the film dropped out of sight, apparently not booked by exhibitors, and is now considered lost.

Early in December 1922, William Van Doren Kelley, inventor of the Prizma color system, cashed in on the growing interest in 3D films started by Fairall's demonstration and shot footage with a camera system of his own design. Kelley then struck a deal with Samuel "Roxy" Rothafel to premiere the first in his series of "Plasticon" shorts entitled Movies of the Future at the Rivoli Theater in New York City.

Also in December 1922, Laurens Hammond (later inventor of the Hammond organ) premiered his Teleview system, which had been shown to the trade and press in October. Teleview was the first alternating-frame 3D system seen by the public. Using left-eye and right-eye prints and two interlocked projectors, left and right frames were alternately projected, each pair being shown three times to suppress flicker. Viewing devices attached to the armrests of the theater seats had rotary shutters that operated synchronously with the projector shutters, producing a clean and clear stereoscopic result. The only theater known to have installed Teleview was the Selwyn Theater in New York City, and only one show was ever presented with it: a group of short films, an exhibition of live 3D shadows, and M.A.R.S., the only Teleview feature. The show ran for several weeks, apparently doing good business as a novelty (M.A.R.S. itself got poor reviews), but Teleview was never seen again.[28]

In 1922, Frederic Eugene Ives and Jacob Leventhal began releasing their first stereoscopic shorts made over a three-year period. The first film, entitled Plastigrams, was distributed nationally by Educational Pictures in the red-and-blue anaglyph format. Ives and Leventhal then went on to produce the following stereoscopic shorts in the "Stereoscopiks Series" released by Pathé Films in 1925: Zowie (April 10), Luna-cy! (May 18), The Run-Away Taxi (December 17) and Ouch (December 17).[29] On 22 September 1924, Luna-cy! was re-released in the De Forest Phonofilm sound-on-film system.[30]

The late 1920s to early 1930s saw little interest in stereoscopic pictures. In Paris, Louis Lumiere shot footage with his stereoscopic camera in September 1933. The following March he exhibited a remake of his 1895 short film L'Arrivée du Train, this time in anaglyphic 3D, at a meeting of the French Academy of Science.[25]

In 1936, Leventhal and John Norling were hired based on their test footage to film MGM's Audioscopiks series. The prints were by Technicolor in the red-and-green anaglyph format, and were narrated by Pete Smith. The first film, Audioscopiks, premiered January 11, 1936, and The New Audioscopiks premiered January 15, 1938. Audioscopiks was nominated for the Academy Award in the category Best Short Subject, Novelty in 1936.

With the success of the two Audioscopiks films, MGM produced one more short in anaglyph 3D, another Pete Smith Specialty called Third Dimensional Murder (1941). Unlike its predecessors, this short was shot with a studio-built camera rig. Prints were by Technicolor in red-and-blue anaglyph. The short is notable for being one of the few live-action appearances of the Frankenstein Monster as conceived by Jack Pierce for Universal Studios outside of their company.

While many of these films were printed by color systems, none of them was actually in color, and the use of the color printing was only to achieve an anaglyph effect.[31]

Introduction of Polaroid

While attending Harvard University, Edwin H. Land conceived the idea of reducing glare by polarizing light. He took a leave of absence from Harvard to set up a lab and by 1929 had invented and patented a polarizing sheet.[32] In 1932, he introduced Polaroid J Sheet as a commercial product.[33] While his original intention was to create a filter for reducing glare from car headlights, Land did not underestimate the utility of his newly dubbed Polaroid filters in stereoscopic presentations.

In February 1936, Land gave the first public demonstration of Polaroid filters in conjunction with 3D photography at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.[34] The reaction was enthusiastic, and he followed it up with an installation at the New York Museum of Science.[25] It is unknown what film was run for audiences at this exhibition.

Using Polaroid filters meant an entirely new form of projection, however. Two prints, each carrying either the right or left eye view, had to be synced up in projection using an external selsyn motor. Furthermore, polarized light would be largely depolarized by a matte white screen, and only a silver screen or screen made of other reflective material would correctly reflect the separate images.

Later that year, the feature, Nozze Vagabonde appeared in Italy, followed in Germany by Zum Greifen nah (You Can Nearly Touch It), and again in 1939 with Germany's Sechs Mädel rollen ins Wochenend (Six Girls Drive Into the Weekend). The Italian film was made with the Gualtierotti camera; the two German productions with the Zeiss camera and the Vierling shooting system. All of these films were the first exhibited using Polaroid filters. The Zeiss Company in Germany manufactured glasses on a commercial basis commencing in 1936; they were also independently made around the same time in Germany by E. Käsemann and by J. Mahler.[35]

In 1939, John Norling shot In Tune With Tomorrow, the first commercial 3D film using Polaroid in the US[citation needed]. This short premiered at the 1939 New York World's Fair and was created specifically for the Chrysler Motors Pavilion. In it, a full 1939 Chrysler Plymouth is magically put together, set to music. Originally in black and white, the film was so popular that it was re-shot in color for the following year at the fair, under the title New Dimensions.[citation needed] In 1953, it was reissued by RKO as Motor Rhythm.

Another early short that utilized the Polaroid 3D process was 1940's Magic Movies: Thrills For You produced by the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. for the Golden Gate International Exposition.[citation needed] Produced by John Norling, it was filmed by Jacob Leventhal using his own rig. It consisted of shots of various views that could be seen from the Pennsylvania Railroad's trains.

In the 1940s, World War II prioritized military applications of stereoscopic photography and it once again went on the back burner in most producers' minds.

The "golden era" (1952–1954)

What aficionados consider the "golden era" of 3D began in late 1952 with the release of the first color stereoscopic feature, Bwana Devil, produced, written and directed by Arch Oboler. The film was shot in "Natural Vision", a process that was co-created and controlled by M. L. Gunzberg. Gunzberg, who built the rig with his brother, Julian, and two other associates, shopped it without success to various studios before Oboler used it for this feature, which went into production with the title, The Lions of Gulu.[36] The critically panned film was nevertheless highly successful with audiences due to the novelty of 3D, which increased Hollywood interest in 3D during a period that had seen declining box-office admissions.[37]

As with practically all of the features made during this boom, Bwana Devil was projected dual-strip, with Polaroid filters. During the 1950s, the familiar disposable anaglyph glasses made of cardboard were mainly used for comic books, two shorts by exploitation specialist Dan Sonney, and three shorts produced by Lippert Productions. However, even the Lippert shorts were available in the dual-strip format alternatively.

Because the features utilized two projectors, the capacity limit of film being loaded onto each projector (about 6,000 feet (1,800 m), or an hour's worth of film) meant that an intermission was necessary for every feature-length film. Quite often, intermission points were written into the script at a major plot point.

During Christmas of 1952, producer Sol Lesser quickly premiered the dual-strip showcase called Stereo Techniques in Chicago.[38] Lesser acquired the rights to five dual-strip shorts. Two of them, Now is the Time (to Put On Your Glasses) and Around is Around, were directed by Norman McLaren in 1951 for the National Film Board of Canada. The other three films were produced in Britain for Festival of Britain in 1951 by Raymond Spottiswoode. These were A Solid Explanation, Royal River, and The Black Swan.

James Mage was also an early pioneer in the 3D craze. Using his 16 mm 3D Bolex system, he premiered his Triorama program on February 10, 1953, with his four shorts: Sunday In Stereo, Indian Summer, American Life, and This is Bolex Stereo.[39] This show is considered lost.

Another early 3D film during the boom was the Lippert Productions short, A Day in the Country, narrated by Joe Besser and composed mostly of test footage. Unlike all of the other Lippert shorts, which were available in both dual-strip and anaglyph, this production was released in anaglyph only.

April 1953 saw two groundbreaking features in 3D: Columbia's Man in the Dark and Warner Bros. House of Wax, the first 3D feature with stereophonic sound. House of Wax, outside of Cinerama, was the first time many American audiences heard recorded stereophonic sound. It was also the film that typecast Vincent Price as a horror star as well as the "King of 3-D" after he became the actor to star in the most 3D features (the others were The Mad Magician, Dangerous Mission, and Son of Sinbad). The success of these two films proved that major studios now had a method of getting filmgoers back into theaters and away from television sets, which were causing a steady decline in attendance.

The Walt Disney Studios entered 3D with its May 28, 1953, release of Melody, which accompanied the first 3D western, Columbia's Fort Ti at its Los Angeles opening. It was later shown at Disneyland's Fantasyland Theater in 1957 as part of a program with Disney's other short Working for Peanuts, entitled, 3-D Jamboree. The show was hosted by the Mousketeers and was in color.

Universal-International released their first 3D feature on May 27, 1953, It Came from Outer Space, with stereophonic sound. Following that was Paramount's first feature, Sangaree with Fernando Lamas and Arlene Dahl.

Columbia released several 3D westerns produced by Sam Katzman and directed by William Castle. Castle would later specialize in various technical in-theater gimmicks for such Columbia and Allied Artists features as 13 Ghosts, House on Haunted Hill, and The Tingler. Columbia also produced the only slapstick comedies conceived for 3D. The Three Stooges starred in Spooks and Pardon My Backfire; dialect comic Harry Mimmo starred in Down the Hatch. Producer Jules White was optimistic about the possibilities of 3D as applied to slapstick (with pies and other projectiles aimed at the audience), but only two of his stereoscopic shorts were shown in 3D. Down the Hatch was released as a conventional, "flat" motion picture. (Columbia has since printed Down the Hatch in 3D for film festivals.)

John Ireland, Joanne Dru and Macdonald Carey starred in the Jack Broder color production Hannah Lee, which premiered June 19, 1953. The film was directed by Ireland, who sued Broder for his salary. Broder counter-sued, claiming that Ireland went over production costs with the film.[citation needed]

Another famous entry in the golden era of 3D was the 3 Dimensional Pictures production of Robot Monster. The film was allegedly scribed in an hour by screenwriter Wyott Ordung and filmed in a period of two weeks on a shoestring budget.[citation needed] Despite these shortcomings and the fact that the crew had no previous experience with the newly built camera rig, luck was on the cinematographer's side, as many find the 3D photography in the film is well shot and aligned. Robot Monster also has a notable score by then up-and-coming composer Elmer Bernstein. The film was released June 24, 1953, and went out with the short Stardust in Your Eyes, which starred nightclub comedian, Slick Slavin.[citation needed]

20th Century Fox produced their only 3D feature, Inferno in 1953, starring Rhonda Fleming. Fleming, who also starred in Those Redheads From Seattle, and Jivaro, shares the spot for being the actress to appear in the most 3D features with Patricia Medina, who starred in Sangaree, Phantom of the Rue Morgue and Drums of Tahiti. Darryl F. Zanuck expressed little interest in stereoscopic systems, and at that point was preparing to premiere the new widescreen film system, CinemaScope.

The first decline in the theatrical 3D craze started in August and September 1953. The factors causing this decline were:

• Two prints had to be projected simultaneously.[citation needed]
• The prints had to remain exactly alike after repair, or synchronization would be lost.[citation needed]
• It sometimes required two projectionists to keep sync working properly.[citation needed]
• When either prints or shutters became out of sync, even for a single frame, the picture became virtually unwatchable and accounted for headaches and eyestrain.[citation needed]
• The necessary silver projection screen was very directional and caused sideline seating to be unusable with both 3D and regular films, due to the angular darkening of these screens. Later films that opened in wider-seated venues often premiered flat for that reason (such as Kiss Me Kate at the Radio City Music Hall).[citation needed]
• A mandatory intermission was needed to properly prepare the theater's projectors for the showing of the second half of the film.[citation needed]

Because projection booth operators were at many times careless, even at preview screenings of 3D films, trade and newspaper critics claimed that certain films were "hard on the eyes."[citation needed]

Sol Lesser attempted to follow up Stereo Techniques with a new showcase, this time five shorts that he himself produced.[citation needed] The project was to be called The 3-D Follies and was to be distributed by RKO.[citation needed] Unfortunately, because of financial difficulties and the general loss of interest in 3D, Lesser canceled the project during the summer of 1953, making it the first 3D film to be aborted in production.[citation needed] Two of the three shorts were shot: Carmenesque, a burlesque number starring exotic dancer Lili St. Cyr, and Fun in the Sun, a sports short directed by famed set designer/director William Cameron Menzies, who also directed the 3D feature The Maze for Allied Artists.

Although it was more expensive to install, the major competing realism process was wide-screen, but two-dimensional, anamorphic, first utilized by Fox with CinemaScope and its September premiere in The Robe. Anamorphic films needed only a single print, so synchronization was not an issue. Cinerama was also a competitor from the start and had better quality control than 3D because it was owned by one company that focused on quality control. However, most of the 3D features past the summer of 1953 were released in the flat widescreen formats ranging from 1.66:1 to 1.85:1. In early studio advertisements and articles about widescreen and 3D formats, widescreen systems were referred to as "3D", causing some confusion among scholars.[citation needed]

There was no single instance of combining CinemaScope with 3D until 1960, with a film called September Storm, and even then, that was a blow-up from a non-anamorphic negative.[citation needed] September Storm also went out with the last dual-strip short, Space Attack, which was actually shot in 1954 under the title The Adventures of Sam Space.

In December 1953, 3D made a comeback with the release of several important 3D films, including MGM's musical Kiss Me, Kate. Kate was the hill over which 3D had to pass to survive. MGM tested it in six theaters: three in 3D and three-flat.[citation needed] According to trade ads of the time, the 3D version was so well-received that the film quickly went into a wide stereoscopic release.[citation needed] However, most publications, including Kenneth Macgowan's classic film reference book Behind the Screen, state that the film did much better as a "regular" release. The film, adapted from the popular Cole Porter Broadway musical, starred the MGM songbird team of Howard Keel and Kathryn Grayson as the leads, supported by Ann Miller, Keenan Wynn, Bobby Van, James Whitmore, Kurt Kasznar and Tommy Rall. The film also prominently promoted its use of stereophonic sound.

Several other features that helped put 3D back on the map that month were the John Wayne feature Hondo (distributed by Warner Bros.), Columbia's Miss Sadie Thompson with Rita Hayworth, and Paramount's Money From Home with Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis. Paramount also released the cartoon shorts Boo Moon with Casper, the Friendly Ghost and Popeye, Ace of Space with Popeye the Sailor. Paramount Pictures released a 3D Korean War film Cease Fire filmed on actual Korean locations in 1953.[40]

Top Banana, based on the popular stage musical with Phil Silvers, was brought to the screen with the original cast. Although it was merely a filmed stage production, the idea was that every audience member would feel they would have the best seat in the house through color photography and 3D.[citation needed] Although the film was shot and edited in 3D, United Artists, the distributor, felt the production was uneconomical in stereoscopic form and released the film flat on January 27, 1954.[citation needed] It remains one of two "Golden era" 3D features, along with another United Artists feature, Southwest Passage (with John Ireland and Joanne Dru), that are currently considered lost (although flat versions survive).

A string of successful films filmed in 3D followed the second wave, but many were widely or exclusively shown flat. Some highlights are:

• The French Line, starring Jane Russell and Gilbert Roland, a Howard Hughes/RKO production. The film became notorious for being released without an MPAA seal of approval after several suggestive lyrics were included, as well as one of Ms. Russell's particularly revealing costumes.[citation needed] Playing up her sex appeal, one tagline for the film was, "It'll knock both of your eyes out!" The film was later cut and approved by the MPAA for a general flat release, despite having a wide and profitable 3D release.[citation needed]
• Taza, Son of Cochise, a sequel to 1950s Broken Arrow, which starred Rock Hudson in the title role, Barbara Rush as the love interest, and Rex Reason (billed as Bart Roberts) as his renegade brother. Originally released flat through Universal-International. It was directed by the great stylist Douglas Sirk, and his striking visual sense made the film a huge success when it was "re-premiered" in 3D in 2006 at the Second 3D Expo in Hollywood.
• Two ape films: Phantom of the Rue Morgue, featuring Karl Malden and Patricia Medina, produced by Warner Bros. and based on Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", and Gorilla at Large, a Panoramic Production starring Cameron Mitchell, distributed flat and 3D through Fox.
• Creature from the Black Lagoon, starring Richard Carlson and Julie Adams, directed by Jack Arnold. Although arguably the most famous 3D film, it was typically seen in 3D only in large urban theaters and shown flat in the many smaller neighborhood theaters.[41] It was the only 3D feature that spawned a 3D sequel, Revenge of the Creature, which was in turn followed by The Creature Walks Among Us, shot flat.
• Dial M for Murder, directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Ray Milland, Robert Cummings, and Grace Kelly, is considered by aficionados of 3D to be one of the best examples of the process. Although available in 3D in 1954, there are no known playdates in 3D,[citation needed] since Warner Bros. had just instated a simultaneous 3D/2D release policy. The film's screening in 3D in February 1980 at the York Theater in San Francisco did so well that Warner Bros. re-released the film in 3D in February 1982. The film is now available on 3D Blu-ray, marking the first time it was released on home video in its 3D presentation.
• Gog, the last episode in Ivan Tors' Office of Scientific Investigation (OSI) trilogy dealing with realistic science fiction (following The Magnetic Monster and Riders to the Stars). Most theaters showed it flat.
• The Diamond (released in the United States as The Diamond Wizard), a 1954 British crime film starring Dennis O'Keefe. The only stereoscopic feature shot in Britain, released flat in both the UK and US.
• Irwin Allen's Dangerous Mission released by RKO in 1954 featuring Allen's trademarks of an all-star cast facing a disaster (a forest fire). Bosley Crowther's New York Times review mentions that it was shown flat.
• Son of Sinbad, another RKO/Howard Hughes production, starring Dale Robertson, Lili St. Cyr, and Vincent Price. The film was shelved after Hughes ran into difficulty with The French Line, and was not released until 1955, at which time it went out flat, converted to the SuperScope process.

3D's final decline was in the late spring of 1954, for the same reasons as the previous lull, as well as the further success of widescreen formats with theater operators. Even though Polaroid had created a well-designed "Tell-Tale Filter Kit" for the purpose of recognizing and adjusting out of sync and phase 3D,[citation needed] exhibitors still felt uncomfortable with the system and turned their focus instead to processes such as CinemaScope. The last 3D feature to be released in that format during the "Golden era" was Revenge of the Creature, on February 23, 1955. Ironically, the film had a wide release in 3D and was well received at the box office.[42]

Revival (1960–1984) in single strip format

Stereoscopic films largely remained dormant for the first part of the 1960s, with those that were released usually being anaglyph exploitation films. One film of notoriety was the Beaver-Champion/Warner Bros. production, The Mask (1961). The film was shot in 2-D, but to enhance the bizarre qualities of the dream-world that is induced when the main character puts on a cursed tribal mask, these scenes went to anaglyph 3D. These scenes were printed by Technicolor on their first run in red/green anaglyph.

Although 3D films appeared sparsely during the early 1960s, the true second wave of 3D cinema was set into motion by Arch Oboler, the producer who had started the craze of the 1950s. Using a new technology called Space-Vision 3D. The origin of "Space-Vision 3D" goes back to Colonel Robert Vincent Bernier, a forgotten innovator in the history of stereoscopic motion pictures. His Trioptiscope Space-Vision lens was the gold standard for the production and exhibition of 3-D films for nearly 30 years.[43] "Space-Vision 3D" stereoscopic films were printed with two images, one above the other, in a single academy ratio frame, on a single strip, and needed only one projector fitted with a special lens. This so-called "over and under" technique eliminated the need for dual projector set-ups, and produced widescreen, but darker, less vivid, polarized 3D images. Unlike earlier dual system, it could stay in perfect synchronization, unless improperly spliced in repair.

Arch Oboler once again had the vision for the system that no one else would touch, and put it to use on his film entitled The Bubble, which starred Michael Cole, Deborah Walley, and Johnny Desmond. As with Bwana Devil, the critics panned The Bubble, but audiences flocked to see it, and it became financially sound enough to promote the use of the system to other studios, particularly independents, who did not have the money for expensive dual-strip prints of their productions.

In 1970, Stereovision, a new entity founded by director/inventor Allan Silliphant and optical designer Chris Condon, developed a different 35 mm single-strip format, which printed two images squeezed side by side and used an anamorphic lens to widen the pictures through Polaroid filters. Louis K. Sher (Sherpix) and Stereovision released the softcore sex comedy The Stewardesses (self-rated X, but later re-rated R by the MPAA). The film cost US$100,000 to produce, and ran for months in several markets.[citation needed] eventually earning $27 million in North America, alone ($140 million in constant-2010 dollars) in fewer than 800 theaters, becoming the most profitable 3-Dimensional film to date, and in purely relative terms, one of the most profitable films ever. It was later released in 70 mm 3D. Some 36 films worldwide were made with Stereovision over 25 years, using either a widescreen (above-below), anamorphic (side by side) or 70 mm 3D formats.[citation needed] In 2009 The Stewardesses was remastered by Chris Condon and director Ed Meyer, releasing it in XpanD 3D, RealD Cinema and Dolby 3D.

The quality of the 1970s 3D films was not much more inventive, as many were either softcore and even hardcore adult films, horror films, or a combination of both. Paul Morrisey's Flesh For Frankenstein (aka Andy Warhol's Frankenstein) was a superlative example of such a combination.

Between 1981 and 1983 there was a new Hollywood 3D craze started by the spaghetti western Comin' at Ya!. When Parasite was released it was billed as the first horror film to come out in 3D in over 20 years. Horror films and reissues of 1950s 3D classics (such as Hitchcock's Dial M for Murder) dominated the 3D releases that followed. The second sequel in the Friday the 13th series, Friday the 13th Part III, was released very successfully. Apparently saying "part 3 in 3D" was considered too cumbersome so it was shortened in the titles of Jaws 3-D and Amityville 3-D, which emphasized the screen effects to the point of being annoying at times, especially when flashlights were shone into the eyes of the audience.

The science fiction film Spacehunter: Adventures in the Forbidden Zone was the most expensive 3D film made up to that point with production costs about the same as Star Wars but not nearly the same box office success, causing the craze to fade quickly through spring 1983. Other sci-fi/fantasy films were released as well including Metalstorm: The Destruction of Jared-Syn and Treasure of the Four Crowns, which was widely criticized for poor editing and plot holes, but did feature some truly spectacular closeups.

3D releases after the second craze included The Man Who Wasn't There (1983), Silent Madness and the 1985 animated film Starchaser: The Legend of Orin, whose plot seemed to borrow heavily from Star Wars.

Only Comin' At Ya!, Parasite, and Friday the 13th Part III have been officially released on VHS and/or DVD in 3D in the United States (although Amityville 3D has seen a 3D DVD release in the United Kingdom). Most of the 1980s 3D films and some of the classic 1950s films such as House of Wax were released on the now defunct Video Disc (VHD) format in Japan as part of a system that used shutter glasses. Most of these have been unofficially transferred to DVD and are available on the grey market through sites such as eBay.

Stereoscopic movies were also popular in other parts of the world, such as My Dear Kuttichathan, a Malayalam film which was shot with stereoscopic 3D and released in 1984.

Rebirth of 3D (1985–2003)

In the mid-1980s, IMAX began producing non-fiction films for its nascent 3D business, starting with We Are Born of Stars (Roman Kroitor, 1985). A key point was that this production, as with all subsequent IMAX productions, emphasized mathematical correctness of the 3D rendition and thus largely eliminated the eye fatigue and pain that resulted from the approximate geometries of previous 3D incarnations. In addition, and in contrast to previous 35mm-based 3D presentations, the very large field of view provided by IMAX allowed a much broader 3D "stage", arguably as important in 3D film as it is theatre.

The Walt Disney Company also began more prominent use of 3D films in special venues to impress audiences with Magic Journeys (1982) and Captain EO (Francis Ford Coppola, 1986, starring Michael Jackson) being notable examples. In the same year, the National Film Board of Canada production Transitions (Colin Low), created for Expo 86 in Vancouver, was the first IMAX presentation using polarized glasses. Echoes of the Sun (Roman Kroitor, 1990) was the first IMAX film to be presented using alternate-eye shutterglass technology, a development required because the dome screen precluded the use of polarized technology.

From 1990 onward, numerous films were produced by all three parties to satisfy the demands of their various high-profile special attractions and IMAX's expanding 3D network. Films of special note during this period include the extremely successful Into the Deep (Graeme Ferguson, 1995) and the first IMAX 3D fiction film Wings of Courage (1996), by director Jean-Jacques Annaud, about the pilot Henri Guillaumet.

Other stereoscopic films produced in this period include:

• The Last Buffalo (Stephen Low, 1990)
• Jim Henson's Muppet*Vision 3D (Jim Henson, 1991)
• Imagine (John Weiley, 1993)
• Honey, I Shrunk the Audience (Daniel Rustuccio, 1994)
• Into the Deep (Graeme Ferguson, 1995)
• Across the Sea of Time (Stephen Low, 1995)
• Wings of Courage (Jean-Jacques Annaud, 1996)
• L5, First City in Space (Graeme Ferguson, 1996)
• T2 3-D: Battle Across Time (James Cameron, 1996)
• Paint Misbehavin (Roman Kroitor and Peter Stephenson, 1997)
• IMAX Nutcracker (1997)
• The Hidden Dimension (1997)
• T-Rex: Back to the Cretaceous (Brett Leonard, 1998)
• Mark Twain's America (Stephen Low, 1998)
• Siegfried & Roy: The Magic Box (Brett Leonard, 1999)
• Galapagos (Al Giddings and David Clark, 1999)
• Encounter in the Third Dimension (Ben Stassen, 1999)
• Alien Adventure (Ben Stassen, 1999)
• Ultimate G's (2000)
• Cyberworld (Hugh Murray, 2000)
• Cirque du Soleil: Journey of Man (Keith Melton, 2000)
• Haunted Castle (Ben Stassen, 2001)
• Panda Vision (Ben Stassen, 2001)
• Space Station 3D (Toni Myers, 2002)
• SOS Planet (Ben Stassen, 2002)
• Ocean Wonderland (2003)
• Falling in Love Again (Munro Ferguson, 2003)
• Misadventures in 3D (Ben Stassen, 2003)

By 2004, 54% of IMAX theaters (133 of 248) were capable of showing 3D films.[44]

Shortly thereafter, higher quality computer animation, competition from DVDs and other media, digital projection, digital video capture, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70mm film projectors, created an opportunity for another wave of 3D films.[45][46]

Mainstream resurgence (2003–present)

In 2003, Ghosts of the Abyss by James Cameron was released as the first full-length 3D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System. This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Vince Pace, to his specifications. The same camera system was used to film Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over (2003), Aliens of the Deep IMAX (2005), and The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D (2005).

In 2004, Las Vegas Hilton released Star Trek: The Experience which included two films. One of the films, Borg Invasion 4-D (Ty Granoroli), was in 3D. In August of the same year, rap group Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album Hell's Pit. One of two versions of the album contained a DVD featuring a 3D short film for the track "Bowling Balls", shot in high-definition video.[47]

In November 2004, The Polar Express was released as IMAX's first full-length, animated 3D feature. It was released in 3,584 theaters in 2D, and only 66 IMAX locations. The return from those few 3D theaters was about 25% of the total. The 3D version earned about 14 times as much per screen as the 2D version. This pattern continued and prompted a greatly intensified interest in 3D and 3D presentation of animated films.

In June 2005, the Mann's Chinese 6 theatre in Hollywood became the first commercial film theatre to be equipped with the Digital 3D format. Both Singin' in the Rain and The Polar Express were tested in the Digital 3D format over the course of several months. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released Chicken Little in digital 3D format.

The Butler's in Love, a short film directed by David Arquette and starring Elizabeth Berkley and Thomas Jane[49] was released on June 23, 2008. The film was shot at the former Industrial Light & Magic studios using KernerFX's prototype Kernercam stereoscopic camera rig.

Ben Walters suggested in 2009 that both filmmakers and film exhibitors regain interest in 3D film. There was more 3D exhibition equipment, and more dramatic films being shot in 3D format. One incentive is that the technology is more mature. Shooting in 3D format is less limited, and the result is more stable. Another incentive was the fact that while 2D ticket sales were in an overall state of decline, revenues from 3D tickets continued to grow at the time.[50]

Through the entire history of 3D presentations, techniques to convert existing 2D images for 3D presentation have existed. Few have been effective or survived. The combination of digital and digitized source material with relatively cost-effective digital post-processing has spawned a new wave of conversion products. In June 2006, IMAX and Warner Bros. released Superman Returns including 20 minutes of 3D images converted from the 2D original digital footage. George Lucas announced that he would re-release his Star Wars films in 3D based on a conversion process from the company In-Three. Later on in 2011, it was announced that Lucas was working with the company Prime Focus on this conversion.[51]

In late 2005, Steven Spielberg told the press he was involved in patenting a 3D cinema system that did not need glasses, based on plasma screens. A computer splits each film-frame, and then projects the two split images onto the screen at differing angles, to be picked up by tiny angled ridges on the screen.[citation needed]

Animated films Open Season, and The Ant Bully, were released in analog 3D in 2006. Monster House and The Nightmare Before Christmas were released on XpanD 3D, RealD and Dolby 3D systems in 2006.

On May 19, 2007 Scar3D opened at the Cannes Film Market. It was the first US-produced 3D full-length feature film to be completed in Real D 3D. It has been the #1 film at the box office in several countries around the world, including Russia where it opened in 3D on 295 screens.

On January 19, 2008, U2 3D was released; it was the first live-action digital 3D film. In the same year others 3D films included Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, Journey to the Center of the Earth, and Bolt.

On January 16, 2009, Lionsgate released My Bloody Valentine 3D, the first horror film and first R-rated film to be projected in Real D 3D.[52] It was released to 1,033 3D screens, the most ever for this format, and 1,501 regular screens. Another R-rated film, The Final Destination, was released later that year in August on even more screens. It was the first of its series to be released in HD 3D. Major 3D films in 2009 included Coraline, Monsters vs. Aliens, Up, X Games 3D: The Movie, The Final Destination, Disney's A Christmas Carol, and Avatar.[53] Avatar has gone on to be one of the most expensive films of all time, with a budget at $237 million; it is also the highest-grossing film of all time. The main technologies used to exhibit these films, and many others released around the time and up to the present, are Real D 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, MasterImage 3D, and IMAX 3D.

March and April 2010 saw three major 3D releases clustered together, with Alice in Wonderland hitting US theaters on March 5, 2010, How to Train Your Dragon on March 26, 2010, and Clash of the Titans on April 2, 2010. On May 13 of the same year, China's first IMAX 3D film started shooting. The pre-production of the first 3D film shot in France, Derrière les murs, began in May 2010 and was released in mid-2011.

On October 1, 2010 Scar3D was the first-ever stereoscopic 3D Video-on-demand film released through major cable broadcasters for 3D televisions in the United States. Released in the United States on May 21, 2010, Shrek Forever After by DreamWorks Animation (Paramount Pictures) used the Real D 3D system, also released in IMAX 3D.

World 3-D Expositions

In September 2003, Sabucat Productions organized the first World 3-D Exposition, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the original craze. The Expo was held at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre. During the two-week festival, over 30 of the 50 "golden era" stereoscopic features (as well as shorts) were screened, many coming from the collection of film historian and archivist Robert Furmanek, who had spent the previous 15 years painstakingly tracking down and preserving each film to its original glory. In attendance were many stars from each film, respectively, and some were moved to tears by the sold-out seating with audiences of film buffs from all over the world who came to remember their previous glories.

In May 2006, the second World 3-D Exposition was announced for September of that year, presented by the 3-D Film Preservation Fund. Along with the favorites of the previous exposition were newly discovered features and shorts, and like the previous Expo, guests from each film. Expo II was announced as being the locale for the world premiere of several films never before seen in 3D, including The Diamond Wizard and the Universal short, Hawaiian Nights with Mamie Van Doren and Pinky Lee. Other "re-premieres" of films not seen since their original release in stereoscopic form included Cease Fire!, Taza, Son of Cochise, Wings of the Hawk, and Those Redheads From Seattle. Also shown were the long-lost shorts Carmenesque and A Day in the Country (both 1953) and William Van Doren Kelley's two Plasticon shorts (1922 and 1923).

Audience decline

In the wake of its initial popularity and corresponding increase in the number of screens, more films are being released in the 3D format. For instance, only 45% of the premiere weekend box office earnings of Kung Fu Panda 2 came from 3D screenings as opposed to 60% for Shrek Forever After in 2010.[54] In addition, the premiere of Cars 2 opening weekend gross consisted of only 37% from 3D theatres.[55] Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and Captain America: The First Avenger were major releases that achieved similar percentages: 43% and 40% respectively.[56] In view of this trend, there has been box office analysis concluding the implementation of 3D presentation is apparently backfiring by discouraging people from going to film theatres at all. As Brandon Gray of Box Office Mojo notes, "In each case, 3D's more-money-from-fewer-people approach has simply led to less money from even fewer people."[57] Parallel, the number of televisions sold with support for 3D television has dropped, let alone those sold with actual 3D goggles.

According to the Motion Picture Association of America, despite a record total of 47 3D films being released in 2011, the overall domestic box office receipts were down 18% to $1.8 billion from $2.2 billion in 2010.[58] Although revenues as a whole increased during 2012, the bulk has so far come from 2D presentations as exemplified by little over 50% of filmgoers opting to see the likes of The Avengers and 32% choosing Brave in their 3D versions. Conflicting reasons are respectively offered by studios and exhibitors: whereas the former blame more expensive 3D ticket prices, the latter argue that the quality of films in general is at fault. However, despite the perceived decline of 3D in the U.S. market, studio chiefs are optimistic of better receipts internationally, where there still appears to be a strong appetite for the format.[59][60]

Studios are also using 3D to generate additional income from films that are already commercially successful. Such re-releases usually involve a conversion from 2D. For example, Disney has reissued both The Lion King and Beauty and the Beast, with plans to add some of its other well-known titles.[61] Titanic has also been modified for 3D,[62] and there are also plans to similarly present all six Star Wars films.[63]

Jeffrey Katzenberg, a producer of 3D films and one of the leading proponents of the format, blames oversaturation of the market with inferior films, especially ones photographed conventionally and then digitally processed in post-production. He claims that such films have led audiences to conclude that the format is not worth the often much higher ticket price.[64] Daniel Engber, a columnist for Slate, comes to a similar conclusion: "What happened to 3-D? It may have died from a case of acute septicemia—too much crap in the system."[65]

Film critic Mark Kermode, a noted detractor of 3D, has surmised that there is an emerging policy of distributors to limit the availability of 2D versions, thus "railroading" the 3D format into cinemas whether the paying filmgoer likes it or not. This was especially prevalent during the release of Prometheus in 2012, where only 30% of prints for theatrical exhibition (at least in the UK) were in 2D.[66] His suspicions were later reinforced by a substantial number of complaints about Dredd from those who wished to see it in 2D but were denied the opportunity.[67] In July 2017, IMAX announced that they will begin to focus on screening more Hollywood tentpole movies in 2D (even if there's a 3D version) and have fewer 3D screenings of movies in North America, citing that moviegoers in North America prefer 2D films over 3D films.[68]

Techniques

Further information: Stereoscopy

Stereoscopic motion pictures can be produced through a variety of different methods. Over the years the popularity of systems being widely employed in film theaters has waxed and waned. Though anaglyph was sometimes used prior to 1948, during the early "Golden Era" of 3D cinematography of the 1950s the polarization system was used for every single feature-length film in the United States, and all but one short film.[69] In the 21st century, polarization 3D systems have continued to dominate the scene, though during the 1960s and 1970s some classic films which were converted to anaglyph for theaters not equipped for polarization, and were even shown in 3D on television.[70] In the years following the mid-1980s, some films were made with short segments in anaglyph 3D. The following are some of the technical details and methodologies employed in some of the more notable 3D film systems that have been developed.

Producing 3D films

Live action

Main article: Stereo photography techniques

The standard for shooting live-action films in 3D involves using two cameras mounted so that their lenses are about as far apart from each other as the average pair of human eyes, recording two separate images for both the left eye and the right eye. In principle, two normal 2D cameras could be put side-to-side but this is problematic in many ways. The only real option is to invest in new stereoscopic cameras. Moreover, some cinematographic tricks that are simple with a 2D camera become impossible when filming in 3D. This means those otherwise cheap tricks need to be replaced by expensive CGI.[71]

In 2008, Journey to the Center of the Earth became the first live-action feature film to be shot with the earliest Fusion Camera System released in Digital 3D and was later followed by several others. Avatar (2009) was shot in a 3D process that is based on how the human eye looks at an image. It was an improvement to the existing 3D camera system. Many 3D camera rigs still in use simply pair two cameras side by side, while newer rigs are paired with a beam splitter or both camera lenses built into one unit. While Digital Cinema cameras are not a requirement for 3D they are the predominant medium for most of what is photographed. Film options include IMAX 3D and Cine 160.

Animation

In the 1930s and 1940s Fleischer Studio made several cartoons with extensive stereoscopic 3D backgrounds, including several Popeye, Betty Boop, and Superman cartoons.

In the early to mid-1950s, only half of the major Animation film studios operation experimented with creating traditional 3D animated short subjects. Walt Disney Studio produced two traditional animation short for stereoscopic 3D, for cinemas. Adventures in Music: Melody (1953), and the Donald Duck cartoon Working for Peanuts (1953). Warner Brothers only produced a single cartoon in 3D: Lumber Jack-Rabbit (1953) starring Bugs Bunny. Famous Studio produced two cartoons in 3D, the Popeye cartoon Popeye, the Ace of Space (1953), and the Casper the Friendly Ghost cartoon Boo Moon (1954). Walter Lantz Studio produced the Woody Woodpecker cartoon Hypnotic Hick (1953), which was distributed by Universal.

From the late 1950s until the mid-2000s almost no animation was produced for 3D display in theaters. Although several films used 3D backgrounds. One exception is Starchaser: The Legend of Orin.

CGI animated films can be rendered as stereoscopic 3D version by using two virtual cameras. Stop-motion animated 3D films are photographed with two cameras similar to live action 3D films.

In 2004 The Polar Express was the first stereoscopic 3D computer-animated feature film. The 3D version was solely release in Imax theaters. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released Chicken Little in digital 3D format, being Disney's first CGI-animated film in 3D. The film was converted from 2D into 3D in post production. nWave Pictures' Fly Me to the Moon (2008) was actually the first animated film created for 3D and released exclusively in 3D in digital theaters around the world. No other animation films have released solely in 3D since. The first 3D feature by DreamWorks Animation, Monsters vs Aliens, followed in 2009 and used a new digital rendering process called InTru3D, which was developed by Intel to create more realistic animated 3D images. InTru3D is not used to exhibit 3D films in theaters; they are shown in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D.

2D to 3D conversion

Main article: 2D to 3D conversion

In the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.

For all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas, Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods.[72]

However, conversion to 3D has problems. Information is unavailable as 2D does not have information for a perspective view. Some TVs have a 3D engine to convert 2D content to 3D. Usually, on high frame rate content (and on some slower processors even normal frame rate) the processor is not fast enough and lag is possible. This can lead to strange visual effects.[73]

Displaying 3D films

Further information: 3D television and 3D Display

Anaglyph

Main article: Anaglyph 3D

Anaglyph images were the earliest method of presenting theatrical 3D, and the one most commonly associated with stereoscopy by the public at large, mostly because of non-theatrical 3D media such as comic books and 3D television broadcasts, where polarization is not practical. They were made popular because of the ease of their production and exhibition. The first anaglyph film was invented in 1915 by Edwin S Porter. Though the earliest theatrical presentations were done with this system, most 3D films from the 1950s and 1980s were originally shown polarized.[74]

In an anaglyph, the two images are superimposed in an additive light setting through two filters, one red and one cyan. In a subtractive light setting, the two images are printed in the same complementary colors on white paper. Glasses with colored filters in each eye separate the appropriate images by canceling the filter color out and rendering the complementary color black.

Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel sighting or crossed eye stereograms, although the latter types offer bright and accurate color rendering, particularly in the red component, which is muted, or desaturated with even the best color anaglyphs. A compensating technique, commonly known as Anachrome, uses a slightly more transparent cyan filter in the patented glasses associated with the technique. Process reconfigures the typical anaglyph image to have less parallax.

An alternative to the usual red and cyan filter system of anaglyph is ColorCode 3-D, a patented anaglyph system which was invented in order to present an anaglyph image in conjunction with the NTSC television standard, in which the red channel is often compromised. ColorCode uses the complementary colors of yellow and dark blue on-screen, and the colors of the glasses' lenses are amber and dark blue.

The polarization 3D system has been the standard for theatrical presentations since it was used for Bwana Devil in 1952,[74] though early Imax presentations were done using the eclipse system and in the 1960s and 1970s classic 3D films were sometimes converted to anaglyph for special presentations. The polarization system has better color fidelity and less ghosting than the anaglyph system. In the post-'50s era, anaglyph has been used instead of polarization in feature presentations where only part of the film is in 3D such as in the 3D segment of Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare and the 3D segments of Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over.

Anaglyph is also used in printed materials and in 3D television broadcasts where polarization is not practical. 3D polarized televisions and other displays only became available from several manufacturers in 2008; these generate polarization on the receiving end.

Polarization systems

Main article: Polarized 3D system

To present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through different polarizing filters. The viewer wears low-cost glasses which also contain a pair of polarizing filters oriented differently (clockwise/counterclockwise with circular polarization or at 90 degree angles, usually 45 and 135 degrees,[75] with linear polarization). As each filter passes only that light which is similarly polarized and blocks the light polarized differently, each eye sees a different image. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives. Since no head tracking is involved, the entire audience can view the stereoscopic images at the same time.

Circular polarization has an advantage over linear polarization, in that the viewer does not need to have their head upright and aligned with the screen for the polarization to work properly. With linear polarization, turning the glasses sideways causes the filters to go out of alignment with the screen filters causing the image to fade and for each eye to see the opposite frame more easily. For circular polarization, the polarizing effect works regardless of how the viewer's head is aligned with the screen such as tilted sideways, or even upside down. The left eye will still only see the image intended for it, and vice versa, without fading or crosstalk. Nonetheless, 3D cinema films are made to be viewed without head tilt, and any significant head tilt will result in incorrect parallax and prevent binocular fusion.

In the case of RealD a circularly polarizing liquid crystal filter which can switch polarity 144 times per second is placed in front of the projector lens. Only one projector is needed, as the left and right eye images are displayed alternately. Sony features a new system called RealD XLS, which shows both circular polarized images simultaneously: A single 4K projector (4096×2160 resolution) displays both 2K images (2048×1080 resolution) on top of each other at the same time, a special lens attachment polarizes and projects the images.[76]

Optical attachments can be added to traditional 35mm projectors to adapt them for projecting film in the "over-and-under" format, in which each pair of images is stacked within one frame of film. The two images are projected through different polarizers and superimposed on the screen. This is a very cost-effective way to convert a theater for 3-D as all that is needed are the attachments and a non-depolarizing screen surface, rather than a conversion to digital 3-D projection. Thomson Technicolor currently produces an adapter of this type.[77] A metallic screen is necessary for these systems as reflection from non-metallic surfaces destroys the polarization of the light.

Polarized stereoscopic pictures have been around since 1936, when Edwin H. Land first applied it to motion pictures. The so-called "3-D movie craze" in the years 1952 through 1955 was almost entirely offered in theaters using linear polarizing projection and glasses. Only a minute amount of the total 3D films shown in the period used the anaglyph color filter method. Linear polarization was likewise used with consumer level stereo projectors. Polarization was also used during the 3D revival of the 1980s.

In the 2000s, computer animation, competition from DVDs and other media, digital projection, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70mm film projectors, have created an opportunity for a new wave of polarized 3D films.[45][46]

All types of polarization will result in a darkening of the displayed image and poorer contrast compared to non-3D images. Light from lamps is normally emitted as a random collection of polarizations, while a polarization filter only passes a fraction of the light. As a result, the screen image is darker. This darkening can be compensated by increasing the brightness of the projector light source. If the initial polarization filter is inserted between the lamp and the image generation element, the light intensity striking the image element is not any higher than normal without the polarizing filter, and overall image contrast transmitted to the screen is not affected.

Active shutter

Main article: Active shutter 3D system

In this technology, a mechanism is used to block light from each appropriate eye when the converse eye's image is projected on the screen.

The technology originated with the Eclipse Method, in which the projector alternates between left and right images, and opens and closes the shutters in the glasses or viewer in synchronization with the images on the screen.[citation needed] This was the basis of the Teleview system which was used briefly in 1922.[28][78]

A newer implementation of the Eclipse Method came with LCD shutter glasses. Glasses containing liquid crystal that will let light through in synchronization with the images on the cinema, television or computer screen, using the concept of alternate-frame sequencing. This is the method used by nVidia, XpanD 3D, and earlier IMAX systems. A drawback of this method is the need for each person viewing to wear expensive, electronic glasses that must be synchronized with the display system using a wireless signal or attached wire. The shutter-glasses are heavier than most polarized glasses, though lighter models are no heavier than some sunglasses or deluxe polarized glasses.[79] However these systems do not require a silver screen for projected images.

Liquid crystal light valves work by rotating light between two polarizing filters. Due to these internal polarizers, LCD shutter-glasses darken the display image of any LCD, plasma, or projector image source, which has the result that images appear dimmer and contrast is lower than for normal non-3D viewing. This is not necessarily a usage problem; for some types of displays which are already very bright with poor grayish black levels, LCD shutter glasses may actually improve the image quality.

Interference filter technology

Main article: Anaglyph 3D § Interference filter systems

Dolby 3D uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Glasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a 3D image. This technology eliminates the expensive silver screens required for polarized systems such as RealD, which is the most common 3D display system in theaters. It does, however, require much more expensive glasses than the polarized systems. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization

The recently introduced Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system also uses this technology, though with a wider spectrum and more "teeth" to the "comb" (5 for each eye in the Omega/Panavision system). The use of more spectral bands per eye eliminates the need to color process the image, required by the Dolby system. Evenly dividing the visible spectrum between the eyes gives the viewer a more relaxed "feel" as the light energy and color balance is nearly 50-50. Like the Dolby system, the Omega system can be used with white or silver screens. But it can be used with either film or digital projectors, unlike the Dolby filters that are only used on a digital system with a color correcting processor provided by Dolby. The Omega/Panavision system also claims that their glasses are cheaper to manufacture than those used by Dolby.[80] In June 2012 the Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing "challenging global economic and 3D market conditions".[81] Although DPVO dissolved its business operations, Omega Optical continues promoting and selling 3D systems to non-theatrical markets. Omega Optical's 3D system contains projection filters and 3D glasses. In addition to the passive stereoscopic 3D system, Omega Optical has produced enhanced anaglyph 3D glasses. The Omega's red/cyan anaglyph glasses use complex metal oxide thin film coatings and high quality annealed glass optics.

Autostereoscopy

Main article: Autostereoscopy

In this method, glasses are not necessary to see the stereoscopic image. Lenticular lens and parallax barrier technologies involve imposing two (or more) images on the same sheet, in narrow, alternating strips, and using a screen that either blocks one of the two images' strips (in the case of parallax barriers) or uses equally narrow lenses to bend the strips of image and make it appear to fill the entire image (in the case of lenticular prints). To produce the stereoscopic effect, the person must be positioned so that one eye sees one of the two images and the other sees the other.

Both images are projected onto a high-gain, corrugated screen which reflects light at acute angles. In order to see the stereoscopic image, the viewer must sit within a very narrow angle that is nearly perpendicular to the screen, limiting the size of the audience. Lenticular was used for theatrical presentation of numerous shorts in Russia from 1940 to 1948[70] and in 1946 for the feature-length film Robinson Crusoe.[82]

Though its use in theatrical presentations has been rather limited, lenticular has been widely used for a variety of novelty items and has even been used in amateur 3D photography.[83][84] Recent use includes the Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D with an autostereoscopic display that was released in 2009. Other examples for this technology include autostereoscopic LCD displays on monitors, notebooks, TVs, mobile phones and gaming devices, such as the Nintendo 3DS.

Health effects

Main article: Health effects of 3D

Some viewers have complained of headaches and eyestrain after watching 3D films.[85] Motion sickness, in addition to other health concerns,[86] are more easily induced by 3D presentations. One published study shows that of those who watch 3D films, nearly 55% experience varying levels of headaches, nausea and disorientation.[87]

There are two primary effects of 3D film that are unnatural for human vision: crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation, and the mismatch between convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object's perceived position in front of, or behind the screen and the real origin of that light on the screen.

It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, due to a variety of medical conditions.[88][89] According to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of digital stereo to them.[90]

It has recently been discovered that each of the rods and cones in animal eyes can measure the distance to the point on the object that is in focus at the particular rod or cone. Each rod or cone can act as a passive LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging). The lens selects the point on the object for each pixel to which the distance is measured; that is, humans can see in 3D separately with each eye.[91] If the brain uses this ability in addition to the stereoscopic effect and other cues no stereoscopic system can present a true 3D picture to the brain.

The French National Research Agency (ANR) has sponsored multidisciplinary research in order to understand the effects of 3D film viewing, its grammar, and its acceptance.[92]

Criticism

After Toy Story, there were 10 really bad CG movies because everybody thought the success of that film was CG and not great characters that were beautifully designed and heartwarming. Now, you've got people quickly converting movies from 2D to 3D, which is not what we did. They're expecting the same result, when in fact they will probably work against the adoption of 3D because they'll be putting out an inferior product.

— Avatar director James Cameron[93]

Most of the cues required to provide humans with relative depth information are already present in traditional 2D films. For example, closer objects occlude further ones, distant objects are desaturated and hazy relative to near ones, and the brain subconsciously "knows" the distance of many objects when the height is known (e.g. a human figure subtending only a small amount of the screen is more likely to be 2 m tall and far away than 10 cm tall and close). In fact, only two of these depth cues are not already present in 2D films: stereopsis (or parallax) and the focus of the eyeball (accommodation).

3D film-making addresses accurate presentation of stereopsis but not of accommodation, and therefore is insufficient in providing a complete 3D illusion. However, promising results from research aimed at overcoming this shortcoming were presented at the 2010 Stereoscopic Displays and Applications conference in San Jose, U.S.[94]

Film critic Mark Kermode[95] argued that 3D adds "not that much" value to a film, and said that, while he liked Avatar, the many impressive things he saw in the film had nothing to do with 3D. Kermode has been an outspoken critic of 3D film describing the effect as a "nonsense" and recommends using two right or left lenses from the 3D glasses to cut out the "pointy, pointy 3D stereoscopic vision", although this technique still does not improve the huge brightness loss from a 3D film.[96] Versions of these "2-D glasses" are being marketed.[97]

As pointed out in the article "Virtual Space – the movies of the future"[98][failed verification] in real life the 3D effect, or stereoscopic vision, depends on the distance between the eyes, which is only about 2+1⁄2 inches. The depth perception this affords is only noticeable near to the head – at about arms length. It is only useful for such tasks as threading a needle. It follows that in films portraying real life, where nothing is ever shown so close to the camera, the 3D effect is not noticeable and is soon forgotten as the film proceeds.

Director Christopher Nolan has criticised the notion that traditional film does not allow depth perception, saying "I think it's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D. The whole point of cinematic imagery is it's three dimensional... You know 95% of our depth cues come from occlusion, resolution, color and so forth, so the idea of calling a 2D movie a '2D movie' is a little misleading."[99] Nolan also criticised that shooting on the required digital video does not offer a high enough quality image[100] and that 3D cameras cannot be equipped with prime (non-zoom) lenses.[99]

Late film critic Roger Ebert repeatedly criticized 3D film as being "too dim", sometimes distracting or even nausea-inducing, and argued that it is an expensive technology that adds nothing of value to the film-going experience (since 2-D films already provide a sufficient illusion of 3D).[101] While Ebert was "not opposed to 3-D as an option", he opposed it as a replacement for traditional film, and preferred 2-D technologies such as MaxiVision48 that improve image area/resolution and frames per second.[101]

Brightness concerns

Most 3D systems will cut down the brightness of the picture considerably – the light loss can be as high as 88%. Some of this loss may be compensated by running the projector's bulb at higher power or using more powerful bulbs.[102]

The 2D brightness cinema standard is 14 foot-lamberts (48 candela per square metre), as set by the SMPTE standard 196M. As of 2012[update], there is no official standard for 3D brightness. According to the industry de facto standard, however, the "acceptable brightness range" goes as low as 3.5 fL (12 cd/m2) – just 25% of the standard 2D brightness.[103]

Among others, Christopher Nolan has criticized the huge brightness loss: "You're not that aware of it because once you're 'in that world,' your eye compensates, but having struggled for years to get theaters up to the proper brightness, we're not sticking polarized filters in everything."[104]

In September 2012, the DCI standards body issued a "recommended practice" calling for a 3D projection brightness of 7 fL (24 cd/m2), with an acceptable range of 5–9 fL (17–31 cd/m2).[2] It is not known how many theaters actually achieve such light levels with current technology. Prototype laser projection systems have reached 14 fL (48 cd/m2) for 3D on a cinema screen.[3]

Post-conversion

Main article: 2D to 3D conversion

Another major criticism is that many of the films in the 21st century to date were not filmed in 3D, but converted into 3-D after filming. Filmmakers who have criticized the quality of this process include James Cameron (whose film Avatar was created mostly in 3D from the ground up, with some portions of the film created in 2D,[105] and is largely credited with the revival of 3D) and Michael Bay.[93] However, Cameron has said that quality 2D to 3D conversions can be done if they take the time they need and the director is involved.[106] Cameron's Titanic was converted into 3D in 2012, taking 60 weeks and costing $18 million.

In contrast, computer-animated films for which the original computer models are still available can be rendered in 3D easily, as the depth information is still available and does not need to be inferred or approximated. This has been done with Toy Story, among others.[107]

See also

• 
  Film portal

• Cinematography
• Digital cinema
• List of 3D films (1914–2004)
• List of 3D films (2005–present)
• 2D to 3D conversion
• Depth perception
• Stereoscopy
• Autostereoscopy
• 3D display
  • 3D television
• 4D film
• Volumetric display
• 3-D Film Preservation Fund
• Motion capture
• Stereoscopic video game
• Surround sound
• 3D formats
  • Digital 3D
  • Disney Digital 3-D
  • RealD 3D
  • Dolby 3D
  • XpanD 3D
  • MasterImage 3D
  • IMAX 3D
  • 4DX

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to 3D films.

• "How They Make Movies Leap at You". Popular Science: 97–99. April 1953. Retrieved December 23, 2016.

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